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Sayam 2015PHA1104
Kamanpreet Singh 2015PHA1108
Abhijeet Singh 2015PHA1118
Jaskirat Singh 2015PHA1141
Rohit Thaper 2015PHA1152
 The first decades of the nineteenth century marked
the beginnings of quantitative experimental
spectroscopy.
Thomas Young through his Double Slit Experiment
paved way for the future scientists to explore more
into the properties of light.
Among the most striking achievements of his
paper(1802) was the measurement of the
wavelengths of light of different colours using a
diffraction grating with 500 grooves per inch.
Fraunhoffer conducted some experiments to study
the solar spectrum using spectroscope for the first
time and he labelled the 10 strongest lines in the
solar spectrum A, a, B, C, D, E, b, F, G and H.
 In 1862, Faraday attempted to measure the change in
wavelength of spectral lines when the source of the
lines was placed in a strong magnetic field, but failed
to observe any positive effect.
Inspired by this negative result, Pieter Zeeman
repeated the experiment and discovered the
broadening of the D lines of sodium when a sodium
flame was placed between the poles of a strong
electromagnet. For this he used a high quality
Rowland grating with a radius of 10 feet and 14 938
lines per inch.
His paper was presented on Saturday, 31 October 1896
to the Science Section of the Dutch Academy of
Sciences.
Pieter Zeeman

The original
electromagnet used
by Zeeman in 1896 is
in the Museum
Boerhaave in Leiden.
 Lorentz interpreted this
result in terms of the
splitting of spectral lines
due to the motion of the
ions in the atoms in the
magnetic field
It is supposed that the
emission line is due to the
vibration of oscillators Photograph
within the atoms of the taken by Zeeman
material, each of the
broadening of D
characterised by a mass m Lines Of Sodium
and a spring constant k
 He worked out the equations of motion using
these assumptions and obtained the following
results :
= eB/4m
Zeeman continued his careful measurements
over the next two months and discovered that
the polarisation properties of the broadened
lines agreed with the results as obtained by
Lorentz.
Since the result used the ratio e/m it was
surprising for Lorentz and his colleagues that
the ions responsible for electrolytic
phenomena had values of e/m similar to that
of the hydrogen ion.The Zeeman effect thus
provided a means of studying the internal
structure of atoms.
 At about the same time, an alternative approach to
the splitting of spectral lines was proposed by Joseph
Larmor
consider a charged particle of mass m and electric
charge e moving in a circular orbit. There is an
electric current associated with this motion resulting
in a magnetic moment which is related to the
angular momentum of the particle L by the classical
relation = (e/2m)L.
Suppose the axis of the magnetic dipole of the orbit
is at an angle with respect to the magnetic field
direction B. Then, there is a torque acting on the
orbiting electron, the magnitude and direction of
the torque being given by the vector relation =
B.
The action of the torque causes the angular
momentum vector to precess about the direction of
the magnetic field in the azimuthal direction.
His final result was
= eB/2m
 This is exactly the same formula as derived by
Lorentz.
Thus, there were two ion pictures involving the
magnetic field either the splitting was associated
with the effect of the magnetic field upon a linear
oscillator or with the precessional motion of an
orbiting charge.
These discoveries gave significant insights into the
physics of atoms, but the picture was soon clouded
by the discoveries of Michelson (1897) and Preston
(1898) that the spectral lines of atoms could be
split into four, six or more components. These
results were inconsistent with the Lorentz picture
which became known as the normal Zeeman
effect.
The higher order splittings were referred to as the
anomalous Zeeman effect, the explanation of
which was at least 20 years in the future.
 Following the development of the Bohr
Sommerfeld quantum model of the atom, Debye
(1916) and Sommerfeld (1916) used the formalism
of actionangle variables which proved to be
ideally matched to the requirements of quantum
theory.
The motion of the electron was determined by
the combined influences of the electrostatic field
of the nucleus and the Lorentz force f = e(v B)
associated with the magnetic field B.
They formulated equations of motion and made
calculations and realised that some selection
rules had to be established to account for the
splittings.
The rules that were established by this
formulation still could only explain Normal
Zeeman Effect only.
 The Normal Zeeman Effect had a certain
limitation . The electromagnet used by Zeeman
was not vey strong so it showed the splitting of
only singlet state.
When Preston carried out his experiments on
the Zeeman effect in sodium using the
powerful electromagnet at the Royal College of
Science in Dublin, he found something quite
different.
These splittings of the D-lines were confirmed
by Cornu (1898), the D1 line being a quadruplet
and the D2 line a sextuplet (Fig. 7.2b). These
phenomena were referred to as the anomalous
Zeeman effect.
 The comparison of the two spectra obtained
in the Normal Zeeman Effect and Anomalous
Zeeman Effect are shown below:
 Although the BohrSommerfeld model could account
for the properties of hydrogen-like atoms, multiple
electron systems proved to be intractable models for
helium with two electrons and a nucleus with two
opposite electric charges could not be reconciled with
the experimental results
The physicists were working on this problem and
eventually realised that in addition to the previous
selection rules ,one more selection rule had to be
established to account for the splittings.
Around this time only, models for the atom and
periodic table was being developed and reviewed and
the likes Bohr,Stoner,Pauli and many others were
making significant contributions to it.
The leading scientists realised that an additional
quantum number had to be assigned to the elements
in order to account for the various other experimental
observations and eventually lead to explanation of the
Zeeman effect under strong magnetic field.
 The analyses of the Stark and Zeeman effects by
Schwarzschild, Epstein, Sommerfeld and Debye
greatly advanced understanding of the nature of
quantum effects within atoms.
After various developments in the understanding
of periodic table ,Lande finally introduced an
inner quantum number that he named at that
time j and proposed the selection rules .
The concept of spin was then introduced and the
shortcomings to the previous models were
accounted for.
Lande calculated the splitting factor known as g-
factor and made significant contributions to the
explanation of Anomalous Zeeman effect
 With the development of the stronger
magnetic field, experiment related to
Zeeman effect were again carried out and it
it was observerd that under very high
magnetic field the the spectra observed was
similar to the spectra of Normal Zeeman
Effect.
When the magnetic field is so strong that it
disrupts the coupling between J and S , then
this effect is observed.
The Paschen-Back Effect