DESCRIPTIVE

HYDROLOGY
QUANTITATIVE
HYDROLOGY
HYDROGRAPH
ANALYSIS
Hydrograph

- a graph showing the rate of flow (discharge)

versus time past a specific point in a river, or
other channel or conduit carrying flow.

- it can also refer to a graph showing the volume

of water reaching a particular outfall, or location
in a sewerage network.
ESTIMATING VOLUME
OF RUNOFF
ESTIMATING VOLUME OF RUNOFF

R=PLG

where:
R direct runoff
P precipitation
L basin recharge
G groundwater accretion
 Runoff Coefiicients
In the design of storm drains and small water-control projects,
runoff volume is commonly assumed to be percentage of
rainfall.
R = kP
VALUES OF RUNOFF COEFFICIENT (k) FOR VARIOUS SURFACES

SURFACE Value of k
Urban residential
*Single houses 0.20
*Garden apartments 0.30
Commercial and industrial 0.90
Parks 0.05 - 0.30
Asphalt or concrete pavement 0.85 1.0
The runoff coefficient k must vary with both
recharge and precipitation. The percentage or
coefficient approach is most suitable for urban
drainage problems where the amount of
impervious area is large. For moderate rainfalls, all
runoff may come from the impervious area making
k the percentage of impervious area.
Infiltration

Infiltration is the movement of water through the

soil surface and into the soil.

The infiltration capacity of a soil at any time is the

maximum rate at which water enter the soil.

The infiltration rate is the rate at which water

actually enters the soil during a storm; and it must
be equal to the infiltration capacity or rainfall rate,
whichever is less.
The infiltration indices are used to compute and
estimate the volume of runoff from large areas.

W = (P R)/t

where:
W index or loss rate
R direct runoff
P precipitation
T duration of rainfall in hours
Rainfall-Runoff Correlations
The simplest rainfall-runoff correlation is a plot
average rainfall versus resulting runoff. Typically the
relation is slightly curved, indicating an increasing
percentage of runoff at the higher rainfalls.

Moisture-Accounting Procedures
Runoff maybe computed by a moisture-
accounting procedure. Given the equation,
R = P - - - M
The procedure must compute a running sequence
of values of soil moisture and then, with
appropriate rules, divide each increment of rainfall
into runoff and basin recharge. This latter requires
that infiltration be expressed as a function of soil
moisture.
Long Period Runoff Relations
It may be necessary to estimate monthly or annual
streamflow from precipitation data. Such estimates may
be needed to extend a short record of streamflow or to
forecast future runoff for planning reservoir operation.
Forecast for several months in advance are feasible
only when precipitation is largely in the form of snow
that remains on the ground during the winter months.

In estimating runoff volumes for long periods, the

distinction between direct and groundwater runoff is
usually of no concern.

The most accurate method of estimating long-term

runoff is probably as a summation of storm runoff
amounts but such a procedure is only feasible if
computers are employed.
RUNOFF FROM
SNOW
Physics of Snowmelt

The heat required to melt snow comes from several

souces. The most obvious source is solar radiation. The
amount of radiation effective in melting snow is
dependent on reflectivity, or albedo, of the snow. Almost
90% of the radiation incident on clean, fresh snow is
reflected without causing melt, while lesser amount are
reflected from old, dirty snow.

The heat from warm air is a second important heat

source because of the low heat conductivity of air, very
little melt results from induction of still air. However,
turbulence resulting from wind brings large quantities of
warm air into contact with the snow, where heat
exchange can take place.
Rainfall also brings heat to the snow since the rain must
be at a temperature above freezing. The amount of melt
Ms in inches of water caused by rainfall of P inches can
be calculated by a simple calorimetric equation:

( 32)
=
144
Where:
Tw wet-bulb temperature in degrees Fahrenheit
Ms and P in inches

=
80
Where: Ms and P in millimeters and Tw in degrees Celcius
Snowmelt Computation
Methods of snowmelt computation are approximation to
the ideal conditions represented by the theoretical
approach. There is a time delay between snowmelt and
streamflow so that observed stream flow cannot be
assumed to equal concurrent snowmelt.

Snowmelt in basins with little range of elevations

The common procedure for estimating rates of snowmelt
in areas where the catchment is covered with a fairly
uniform depth of snow is the use of degree-day factors.
The degree day factor is the depth of of water melted
from the snow in inches per degree day and may be
determined by dividing the volume of stream flow
produced by melting snow within a given time period by
the total degree days of the period.
Snowmelt in Basins with Wide Range of Elevation
The ultimate solution to the problem of computing
melting rates in mountainous regions appear to require
the establishments of systemic observation of the
location of the snowline or the portion of the basin
covered by snow.

If the variation of temperature with elevation is assumed

and the average elevation of the snow line is estimated,
it is possible to compute the area subject to melting on
any day. Computer simulation has proven reasonably
successful for snowmelt computation.
Snowmelt Concurrent with Rain
If a light snow cover is completely melted
during a rainstorm, the combined runoff from
rain and snow may be estimated by entering a
rainfall-runoff correlation with the sum of the
rainfall and the water equivalent of the snow at
the beginning of rain
HYDROGRAPHS OF
CATCHMENT
OUTFLOW
The Rational Method
If rainfall were applied at a constant rate to an
impervious surface, the runoff from t he surface would
eventually reach a rate equal to the rate of rainfall. The
time required to reach this equilibrium is the time of
concentration, tc, and for small impervious areas, one
may assume that if rain persists at a uniform rate for a
period at least as long as tc, the peak of runoff will
equal the rate of rainfall. This is the basis of rational
formula, or Mulvaneys equation:

=
Where: Qp peak rate of runoff in acre-inches per hour
I intensity of rainfall in in/hr
Ad catchment area in acres ; 1acre.in/hr = 1.008
cfs ; Ad<10acres

=
360
Where: Qp in cubic meters/second
I in millimeters
Ad in hectares
For small plots without defined channels and from which
runoff occurs as laminar overland flow, time to equilibrium
in minutes is given by:
411/3
=
2/3
Where: Lo length of overland flow in ft.
The coefficient b is given by:
0.0007 +
=
1/3
Where: So slope of the surface
Cr retardance coefficient
UNIT HYDROGRAPHS
If two identical rainstorms could occur over a catchment
with identical conditions prior to the rain, the hydrographs
of runoff from the two storms would be expected to be
the same. This is the basis of unit hydrograph concept.
A unit hydrograph is a hydrograph with a volume of 1 in.
(25mm) of direct runoff resulting from a rainstorm of
specified duration and areal pattern.

SYNTHETIC UNIT HYDROGRAPH

Only if flow records and recording rainfall are available
can unit hydrographs be derived. Many watersheds are
ungagged. Consequently, various methods have been
proposed and used for deriving unit hydrographs based
on geometric and topographic characteristics of the
watershed.
COMPUTER
SIMULATION
The digital computer has made possible new approach to hydrology
called computer simulation. Because of the computing speed of
modern computers, it is possible to program the runoff cycle in its
entirely and to solve it continuously using short time increments.
Stanford Watershed Model
The earliest of the simulation programs, uses hourly rainfall and
potential evapotranspiration as input data. Interception, surface
retention, infiltration, overland flow, interflow, groundwater flow, and
soil moisture storage are simulated to calculate inflow to the channels
while routing I used to simulate the channel system.
The basin may be divided into segments having different
rainfall or other characteristics:

Hourly ordinates of the hydrograph- daily flows

Monthly totals of water balance are output
The value of computer simulation lies in:

1. The ability to calculate in detail for short time intervals,

thus permitting a complete evaluation of the complex
process of runoff .
2. The use of all data available
Numerous programs are available that permit the
simulation of a single storm event. These assume the
probability of the computed flood is the same as that of
the input rainfall, which is usually in error. True continuous
simulation incorporates water accounting so that the
variations in infiltration and other processes can be
simulated continuously over long periods of time. This
permits the simulation of long records for use in estimating
probability of floods, droughts, or low flows. A complete
simulation program can also include algorithms for
simulation of sediments erosion and transport and for the
transport and transformation of most water pollutants.
GROUNDWATER
OCCURRENCE OF
GROUNDWATER
Zones of Underground Water
After a rain, infiltrated water may move downward through
this zone of aeration or vadose zone. Water in these upper
layers of the zone of aeration is known as soil moisture. If the
retention capacity of the soil in the zone of aeration is
satisfied, water moves downward into regions where the
pores of the soil or rock are completely filled with water. The
water in this zone of saturation is called the groundwater.
Water Table
The boundary between the vadose zone and the
zone of saturation is termed the water table. Its
location is determined by the elevation to which
water rises in unpumped wells just penetrating the top
of the zone of saturation. The water table is the
surface of a water body that is constantly adjusting
itself toward an equilibrium condition.
Sources of Groundwater
The main source of groundwater is precipitation,
which may penetrate the soil directly to the
groundwater or may enter surface streams and
percolate from these channels to the groundwater. It
should be emphasized that the groundwater typically
has the lowest priority on the water from precipitation.
Interception, depression storage, and soil moisture
must be satisfied before any large amount of water
can percolate to the groundwater. Other sources
include water trapped in sedimentary rocks during
formation.
Aquifers
Geologic formation that contain and transmit
groundwater are known as aquifers. Aquifers are
generally classified as either confined or unconfined.
The capacity of a formation to contain water is
measured by the porosity, or ration of the pore
volume to the total volume of the formation.
Confined Aquifers
Confined aquifers are permeable rock units that are
usually deeper under the ground than unconfined
aquifers. They are overlain by relatively impermeable
rock or clay that limits groundwater movement into,
or out of, the confined aquifer. Groundwater in a
confined aquifer is under pressure and will rise up
inside a borehole drilled into the aquifer. An artesian
flow is where water flows out of the borehole under
natural pressure.

Unconfined Aquifers
Where groundwater is in direct contact with the
atmosphere through the open pore spaces of the
overlying soil or rock, then the aquifer is said to be
unconfined. The upper groundwater surface in an
unconfined aquifer is called the water table.
Discharge of Groundwater
Groundwater in excess of the local capacity of an
aquifer is discharged by evapotranspiration and
surface discharge. A route for direct discharge by
transpiration to the atmosphere is provided whenever
the capillary fringe reaches the root systems of
vegetation. If the water table or an artesian aquifer
intersects the ground surface, water is discharged as
surface flow. If the discharge rate is low or the flow is
spread over a large area, diffuse seepage may occur
and the water does little more than wet the ground
from which it evaporates.
GROUNDWATER
HYDRAULICS
Movement of Groundwater

Except in large caverns and fissures, groundwater

flow is almost exclusively laminar. Hagen and
Poiseuille showed that the velocity of flow in capillary
tubes is proportional to the slope J of the energy line.
Darcy confirmed the applicability of this principle to
flow in uniform sands.

The actual velocity varies from point to point through

the medium. On the average, the actual velocity at
which water is moving through an aquifer is given by:

The transmissivity T is the flow in cubic meters per day

through a vertical section of aquifer wide under a
hydraulic gradient of unity.
The coefficients K and T depend not only on the
medium but also upon the fluid. It is often convenient
to define a parameter that characterizes the effects
of the medium alone. The intrinsic permeability k of a
medium may be defined as:

By dimensional analysis the relation between

hydraulic conductivity K and intrinsic permeability k
can be shown to be:

Determination of Permeability
Laboratory determinations of permeability are made
with devices called permeameters. A sample of
material is placed in a container, and the rate of
discharge through the material under a known head
gradient is measured.
Hydraulic of Wells
If a wellbore were to fully penetrate an extensive
phreatic aquifer with spatially homogenous and
isotropic hydraulic conductivity and in which the
water table is initially horizontal, a circular depression
in the water table would develop when the well is
pumped since no flow can take place without a
gradient toward the well.
Wells
a well is an excavated hole, usually a vertical shaft, in
the earth allowing access to groundwater.
Depending on the purpose of the well, it may be dug
by hand, driven, jetted, bored by an auger, or drilled
by a drilling rig.
Types of well

Dug well- the simplest type of well, consisting of a pit

dug to and a little below the water table. This type of
well is not often used for more than a single farm or a
small village water supply.
Driven well- up to 4 in.(10 cm) in diameter and 60
ft(20 m.) deep may be constructed in an
unconsolidated materials by use of well points.
Because on the limitation of size and depth, it is
not ordinarily adapted for large water supply projects
unless employed in large numbers.
Bored well- constructed by the use of earth auger.
Not all wells are vertical. The qanats of Persia are
shafts driven horizontally or with a slight upward slope.
Another type of horizontal well is the radial collector.
Well completion- the drilling of a hole does not
complete the construction of an efficient well. Unless
a well is drilled into consolidated rock, it must be
cased to prevent collapse of the hole and a section
of well screen or slotted or perforated casing
provided to permit entry of water.
Well sanitation- an important advantage of
groundwater as a source of domestic supply is the
comparative freedom from bacterial and chemical
pollution. However, polluted surface water may enter
the groundwater around the top of the well casing or
through the annual space between the casing and
the wall of the hole.

Maintenance of well- a properly constructed well

requires little maintenance unless it is pumped at an
excessive rates. Excessive pumping may cause
movement of fine materials in the aquifer and
clogging near the screen.
Yield of groundwater

Location of groundwater supplies- because of the

cost of well drilling, it is desirable to have an
assurance that a water supply well will reach a
satisfactory aquifer.

Surface geophysical techniques are often useful tools

in groundwater exploration.
Example: Seismic reflection and refraction surveys

No method specifically locates groundwater but

merely indicates discontinuities that may bound an
aquifer
Basin yield- an aquifer undisturbed by pumping is in
approximate equilibrium. Water is added by natural
recharge and remove by natural discharge. The concept
safe of yield has been used to express quantity of
No method specifically locates groundwater but merely indicates discontinuities that may bound an aquifer
groundwater that can be withdrawn without impairing the
aquifer as a water source.
Determination of safe yield is a complex problem in
hydrology, geology, and economics for which aquifer
requires a unique solution. The general type cases are as
follows:
) aquifer in which safe yield is limited by the availability of
water for recharge.
) aquifer in which safe yield is limited by transmissivity of
the aquifer.
) aquifer in which safe yield is limited by potential
contamination.
 Safe YIELD = P R -
No method specifically locates groundwater but merely indicates discontinuities that may bound -
an aquifer

Where P and are the mean annual precipitation and

evapotranspiration respectively R is the mean annual
runoff and is the net mean annual subsurface
discharge from aquifer, which may be negative or
positive depending on conditions.

All three of these cases offer several possible values of

safe yield depending upon the geophysical situation and
methods used to collect the groundwater.