Well Come To Session On Basic Electrical Theory: Prolific Systems and Technologies PVT LTD

Well come to Session On
Basic Electrical Theory
Prolific Systems and Technologies Pvt Ltd

OBJECTIVE
After completing this couse you will be able :
To refresh the basic electricity theory learnt in colleges

and polytechnics
To upgrade the soft and hardware skills in electricity.
To improve personal efficiency by way of learning
theory
To keep continuing the learning process.
To trouble shoot electrical problems.
Prolific Systems and Technologies Pvt. Ltd.

BASIC ELECTRICAL THEORY
Electricity is just the flow of electrons through a conductor.

Electricity could be understood better by studying the structure of
matter

ATOMS, PROTONS, NEUTRONS, AND
ELECTRONS
Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. Some maters
are water, glass, wood, and steel. All matter consists of molecules,
which are extremely small particles. These particles, even though
tiny, still retain some chemical properties. Molecules can be further
divided, into atoms, or elements. Dividing molecules into atoms
creates a chemical change; i.e., water molecules undergo a chemical
transition to become 2 parts of hydrogen and 1 part oxygen (2
hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen atom.)

ATOMS, PROTONS, NEUTRONS, &
ELECTRONS
Atoms, or elements, are known as the building blocks of matter.
Singly, or in combination, atoms are the materials that constitute all
matter. Some of them elements are iron, hydrogen, and carbon.
The structure of each atom can be roughly compared to a star and
its planetary system. Like the star, the nucleus of an atom is at the
centre. Surrounding the nucleus are tiny electrons, which have a
negative charge, the quantity depending on the element. The
nucleus consists of protons, which have a positive charge, and
neutrons, which carry no charge.

ELECTRONS
Copper atom has 29 protons (+) and 35 neutrons (no charge) in the
nucleus, and 29 electrons (-) orbiting the nucleus. In their natural state
atoms contain an equal number of protons and electrons, and have a
neutral charge. The electrons are arranged in several layers, or rings,
around the nucleus, and these rings are called shells. The number of
the shell determines the maximum number of electrons that can exist
in a shell; the first shell is closest to the nucleus, and the numbers
increase consecutively the further away they are from the nucleus.
The maximum number of electrons that can exist in a shell is as
follows: 2 electrons in the first shell, 8 in the second, 18 in the third, 32
in the fourth, 18 each in the fifth and sixth, and 2 in the seventh.

ELECTRONS
The ability of a material to let go of its electrons is called

conductivity. Materials that are good conductors have from 1 to 4
electrons in their outermost shells. Two conductors used for
electrical wiring are copper, which has 1 electron in its last shell,
and aluminum, which has 3. Atoms with 5, 6, or 7 electrons in their
outermost shells are called nonmetals and are poor conductors;
atoms with 8 electrons are insulators.
A wire heats when current flows through it. If too much current
flows through a wire, overheating will damage the wire and
possibly become a fire hazard.

STATIC ELECTRICITY
Static electricity is an electric charge that builds up in an object.

Friction can build an electric charge up in an object. We are all
familiar with when our hand moves in front of the TV screen and
building up a charge in hair of hand or rubbing our stocking feet on
a carpet, building up a charge in our bodies, and then touching an
uncharged (neutral) object to release the charge (sometimes with an
audible crack and a visible spark.) This charge consists of an excess
number of electrons relative to the protons in the object, and volts.
This excess builds up from rubbing against a different material that
release its electrons more quickly than the object being charged.

STATIC ELECTRICITY
This charge can accumulate in an object if is not discharged. For

instance, rubbing a glass rod with silk causes electrons to flow from
the silk to the glass rod, and thus builds up a charge in both the silk
and the glass rod. Also, rubbing a rubber rod with fur causes
electrons to flow from the fur to the rubber rod. If the glass rod is
brought in proximity to the another similarly charged glass rod,
they repel each other. Also, two rubber rods repel each other. But if
a glass rod is brought close to a rubber rod, they attract each other,
because they have opposite charges. The storage of this charge is
called electricity at rest, or static electricity.

STATIC ELECTRICITY
Two basic rules for electrical charges:
1. Like charges repel, and opposite charges attract.

2. The strength of this repulsion or attraction is directly proportional
to the strengtyh of the electrical charge and inversely proportional
to the square of the distance between the charged objects.

DC POWER
A DC power source, such as a battery, outputs a constant

voltage over time, as shown in the above figure.
In DC the current flows in only one direction
Once the chemicals in the battery have completed their reaction,
the battery will be exhausted and cannot develop any output
voltage. But until then, the output voltage will remain
constant. The same is true for any other source of DC electricity:
the output voltage remains constant over time.

PRIMARY CELL BATTERIES
Combinations of certain metals, such as copper and zinc, will

produce electrical activity when placed in special solutions
called electrolytes. The two metals form the electrodes. The
electrolyte creates a chemical action that causes the zinc to form
positive ions and the copper to form negative ions. These ions
are freely flowing in the electrolyte. No current flow can occur
until the electrode terminals are connected to a circuit, like a
light bulb. The electrons then flow from the zinc electrode
through the external circuit to the copper electrode. The
chemical reaction between the zinc and the electrolyte
continues, and the zinc is eventually used up in the process.
Common dry cell batteries work on a similar principle with a

paste-like electrolyte and a carbon electrode rather than copper.

STORAGE CELL BATTERIES
Storage batteries produce electricity from chemical action somewhat

similar to the primary cells. However, the process can be also
reversed by applying an external source of electricity in a charging
process. This is normally done with a battery charger, or with an
alternator such as in a car or truck. During recharging, some but not
all of the electrons are moved back on to their original electrode.
Each time the battery is recharged, fewer electrons are moved back
to their original electrode and eventually, the battery can no longer
be recharged.

ELECTRICITY IN MOTION
Electrons move through a conductor- have some electrons that are

free to flow - by passing from one atom to another. Materials that
do not have free electrons are insulators. Rubber and ceramics are
good insulators.
Two types of electric currents are DC or direct current, and AC or

alternating current. DC is a current that always flows in the same
direction. Common examples are automobile circuits that are
powered by batteries, and flashlights, also powered by batteries. A
battery is a device that uses chemicals to create an unbalanced
charge between its terminals, and thus causes a direct current to
flow from a (+) terminal to a (-) terminal.

A.C.:In this form of current, the direction of electron flow is

reversed at regular intervals by the electrical generator that
produces the AC. The voltage (level or pressure of electricity) as it is
generated increases from zero to a maximum value in one direction,
then reverses down to zero, and continues to a maximum value in
the other direction, and increases back to zero in the original
direction, and so on. It forms a sinusoidal wave.

Electricity has four basic characteristics:

Voltage (Pressure), (2)Amperes (Flow), (3)Ohms (Resistance), and
(4)Watts (Power).
The flow of electrons through a circuit can be compared to the flow
of water through a pipe. The rate of flow of water is analogous to
Amperes,
- Ohms to pipe diameter,
- water pressure to Voltage, and
- Watts to gallons of water.

ELECTRIC CURRENT (AMPERE)
The unit of current is the ampere.

Amperage would be analogous to the rate in
gallons of water flow through a pipe.

ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE (OHMS)
All materials oppose the current flow, and this opposition

results in some of the electrical energy being converted to heat.
This conversion is in accordance with the formula:
W=I2R, where W is Watts,
I = Intensity of electrical current (Amperes), and R is resistance
in Ohms.
Electrical resistance is analogous to the restriction of the pipe
diameter to the flow of water. Different materials have different
quantities of free electrons. The oppositon is caused by the type
of material that the current is attempting to pass through, as
well as by friction caused by the motion of electrons. This
friction is affected by the diameter of the wire, as well as by the
length of the wire. The opposition of the flow of electrons is
called resistance. The unit of resistance measurement is the ohm
(O).

ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE (OHMS)
One (1) Ohm is the opposition to electrical flow that results in

electrical energy being converted into heat at the rate of one (1)
Watt per Ampere of effective current. The ohmmeter is used to
measure resistance. Copper, silver, gold are good conductors:
Other materials, conductors despite having some insulating

properties; are called resistors. Resistors are used to limit the
current in the circuit to achieve the expected result. Resistors
have a predominant place in electrocnic circuits. Examples of
resistors are alloys such as iron-aluminum chrome, and nickel-
chrome, which are used as heating elements in kilns, furnaces,
geyser and ovens.
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ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (VOLTAGE)
A volt is a unit of EMF or electromotive force, and is defined as

that emf which will establish a current of 1 Ampere through a
resistance of 1 Ohm (O). Voltage is analogous to water pressure, and
is the force that pushes the water through a pipe.
There are several common methods of generating electrical energy,
some of which are mechanical induction, chemical, thermoelectric,
and friction. This is how voltage is supplied in most common
applications.
An AC generator produces a voltage first in one direction, and then
another. This is done by rotating a large coil of wire through a
magnetic field (or vice versa). As the wire coil moves through the
magnetic field, a voltage develops.

ELECTRICAL POWER (WATTS)
Power is the time rate for doing work. The faster the work is done, the
greater the power that will be required to do it. Horsepower is the basic
unit measurement of power, and is defined as 33,000 ftlb/min. The
formula is: hp = L x W = ft-lb / min, 33,000 x t 33,000 where hp =
horsepower,
L = distance in feet through which W is raised or overcome,
W = weight in pounds of the object being moved (or the push or pull in
pounds of force being exerted),and t is time in minutes required to
move weight W through distance L.
Electric power is the rate of doing electrical work. Its unit is the watt, or
kilowatt, (kilo= 1000 ) One (1) watt is developed when (1) ampere is
maintained through a resistance by an emf of (1) volt. The relationship
between kW and hp is: (1) hp = 746 W
Electrical energy means ability to do the work. It is expressed in terms
of kilowatthours (kWh), and (1) kWh is the energy expended if work is
done at a rate of (1) kW for 1 hour.

OHMS LAW
The relationship between electrical power, current, voltage, and

resistance is called Ohms Law. The mathematical formula is
expressed:
P = VI; or:
I = P/V or V = IR,
Ohms law can be applied to an entire circuit, or to any portion of it.
This may be stated as:
The total current flowing in a circuit is equal to the total voltage
applied to the circuit divided by the total resistance of the circuit.
The current flowing in any part of a circuit is equal to the voltage
across that part of the circuit divided by the resistance of that part of
the circuit.

ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
An electric circuit is the path over which electrons flow. The two
basic kinds of circuits are series and parallel.
A combination (or series-parallel) circuit has elements of both basic
kinds of circuits, where some components are connected in series
and others are joined in parallel.

SERIES CIRCUITS
A circuit that only has one path over which current can flow is a
series circuit. A break in any part of a series circuit stops current
flow. All components in a series circuit see the same amount of
current; hence, each component must be capable of carrying that
number of amperes.
RULES FOR SERIES CIRCUITS
The value of a current flowing in a series circuit is the same through all
parts of the circuit.
The total voltage of a series circuit is equal to the sum of the voltages
across each part of the circuit.
The total resistance of a series circuit is equal to the sum of the resistances
across each part of the circuit. Line voltage is divided across each
component in a series circuit in proportion to the component resistance
values. Formula: R= R1+R2+ R3+..

PARALLEL CIRCUITS
A circuit that has two or more current paths is a parallel circuit.

Each component is connected to line voltage, and current still flows
through part of the circuit if one component fails.
Each component must be capable of withstanding line voltage. The
number of amperes varies according to the resistance of the
component.
The more circuit paths, the less opposition to the flow of electrons.
Total circuit resistance decreases when more paths are added.

RULES FOR PARALLEL CIRCUITS
The total current supplied to a parallel circuit is equal to the sum

of the currents through the branches.
The voltage across any branch of a parallel circuit is equal to the
supply voltage.
The total resistance of a parallel circuit is always less than the
resistance of any of the branches.

SERIES/PARALLEL or COMBINATION
CIRCUITS
Certain circumstances require the use of Series/Parallel, or

Combination, circuits, in which series and parallel circuits are
combined. In some front-loading industrial furnaces these circuits
are used to combine, for instance, sidewall heating elements and
backwall heating elements (often shorter than sidewall) in a branch
circuit that is controlled by a power relay.

CAPACITORS
A capacitor is a component made from two (or two sets of)

conductive plates with an insulator between them. The insulator
prevents the plates from touching. When a DC current is applied
across a capacitor, positive charge builds on one plate (or set of
plates) and negative charge builds on the other. The charge will
remain until the capacitor is discharged.
When an AC current is applied across the capacitor, it will charge

one set of plates positive and the other negative during the part of
the cycle when the voltage is positive; when the voltage goes
negative in the second half of the cycle, the capacitor will release
what it previously charged, and then charge the opposite way.

CAPACITORS
This sequence repeats for each cycle. Since it has the opposite
charge stored in it each time the voltage changes, it tends to oppose
the change in voltage. As you can tell then, if you apply a mixed DC
and AC signal across a capacitor, the capacitor will tend to block the
DC and let the AC flow through. The strength of a capacitor is called
capacitance and is measured in farads (F). (In practical terms, usually
microfarads and the like, since one farad would be a very large
capacitor!) They are used in all sorts of electronic circuits, especially
combined with resistors and inductors, and are commonly found in
PCs.

INDUCTORS:
An inductor is made of a coil of wire. When current flows through an

inductor, a magnetic field is created, and the inductor will store this
magnetic energy until it is released. In some ways, an inductor is the
opposite of a capacitor. While a capacitor stores voltage as electrical
energy, an inductor stores current as magnetic energy. Thus, a
capacitor opposes a change in the voltage of a circuit, while an
inductor opposes a change in its current. Therefore, capacitors block
DC current and let AC current pass, while inductors do the opposite.
The strength of an inductor is called its inductance, and is measured
in henrys (H). Inductors have a core of air in the middle of their coils,
or a ferrous (iron) core.

INDUCTORS
Being a magnetic material, the iron core increases the inductance

value, which is also affected by the material used in the wire, and
the number of turns in the coil. Some inductor cores are straight in
shape, and others are closed circles called toroids. The latter type of
inductor is highly efficient because the closed shape is conducive to
creating a stronger magnetic field. Inductors are used in all sorts of
electronic circuits, particularly in combination with resistors and
capacitors, and are commonly found in PCs.

CONDUCTORS
A conductor is any material that offers little opposition (resistance)

to the flow of an electric current.
Common conductors : copper or aluminum wire, covered in any of
various forms of insulation. The size of conductors varies greatly
with the amount of current they carry, and their intended use and
environment. Because most conductors are relatively small in
diameter, the unit called circular mils has been selected to measure
the size of conductors.
A special scale has been developed for the most common wire sizes
known as American Wire Gauge, or AWG. The following table is
based on the 1999 National Electric Code, Tables 310-16 and 310-18.
This is the allowable ampacities of Insulated Conductors, (3) current-
carrying conductors in a raceway or cable, and is based on an
ambient temperature of 86F.
Conductors are materials that permit electrons to flow through
them easily.

ALTERNATING CURRENT
Now consider the above circuit with a single change, as shown in

the figure. This time, the energy source is constantly changing. It
begins by building up a voltage which is positive on top and
negative on the bottom, and therefore pushes electrons through the
circuit in the direction shown by the solid arrows.
However, then the source voltage starts to fall off, and eventually
reverse polarity. Now current will still flow through the circuit, but
this time in the direction shown by the dotted arrows. This cycle
repeats itself endlessly, and as a result the current through the
circuit reverses direction repeatedly.
This is known as an alternating current.

INSULATION TYPES
Various types of plastic are by far the most common insulations

used on conductors. For general purpose building wire, types TW,
THW, and THWN are used more than any other type. Other types
have been developed for machine tools (MTW) where the
conductors are likely to encounter harsh cutting fluids. Likewise, for
high ambient temperatures several types of insulation have been
developed, including the type favored by L&L, which is SEWF. This
is a high temperature silicon rubber based insulation.

VOLTAGE DROP - 220V v/s 230V v/s 240V
Where long wire runs are experienced between the power

supply and the point of connection, it is possible for the
measured voltage at the point of connection to be lower than the
measured
voltage at the power supply. This is caused by transmission

losses through the wires, and can also be aggravated by having
excessive connections from one transformer in a neighbourhood
power grid, or within a single facility. World over, electrical
utilities supply 240V from the transformer, but the measured
voltage coming into a residence may be 230V or even 220V. For
resistance heating devices such as electric ovens or ranges, this
lower voltage can result in slightly slower firings than would be
the case if the actual voltage were 240V.

VOLTAGE DROP
To prevent or improve this voltage drop, larger size conductors can

be used for long runs. thumb rule says to use one size larger wire
for every 50 feet of run from the power supply to the connection
point. The electrician should be able to resolve this issue on site.
Also, using a wire material of low resistivity can keep voltage drop
to acceptable levels. Aluminum wire has a resistivity (Ohms
circular mil per foot) of 17.0; copper has a resistivity of 10.4.
Therefore, the resistivity of copper is 10.4/17.0 = 0.61, or 61% of
aluminums resistivity. It is recommended using only copper wire
for connection to any power supply; in addtion to the resistivity
difference, there are differences in the rate of corrosion that are
aggravated by the high ambient temperatures common at the
furnace connection point.

WHY 230V AND 460V RATINGS?
Under voltage conditions can affect the operation and service life of
motors; these are usually rated at 10% of nameplate voltage - thus
the common rating of 230V or 460V for motors, which can usually
be safely operated at the lower voltages sometimes found at service
connection points. In many industrial plants the most common
equipment is primed by electric motors, and it is common to refer to
the actual power supply as 230V or 460V even though the normal
supply voltage from the utility is 240V or 480V.

INSTRUMENTS TO MEASURE
ELECTRICITY
INSTRUMENTS TO MEASURE
ELECTRICITY
An electrician or technician needs to have a number of tools in his

tool box. In addition to hand and power tools, these should
include measuring instruments that can be used to diagnose
electrical trouble.
CAUTION! Ensure to follow all instructions and safety
procedures that are included with the instrument manufacturers
package.

TEST LAMP
This consists of a rubber-insulated or backelite socket with an

incandescent light bulb (rated for the highest voltage to which it
might be subjected), to which is attached (2) two probes for
attaching to the power source being diagnosed. At least one of
these probes should be fitted with a clamp so that it can be
attached to one of the power source leads, while the other is
manipulated with one hand only. This is a very rough diagnostics
method used on open fuses, interior lighting, motor, and
resistance circuits.

CLAMP-ON AMMETER
These are very convenient test instruments, used for knowing the
amount of amperes flowing in a cable or circuit. Only one (1)
cable can be measured at a time, and the cable can either be bare
or insulated. The cable to be measured is segregated from other
current-carrying cables, so that the jaws of the clamp-on ammeter
can be opened, slipped around the cable, and then closed. As soon
as the jaws close, a clear and accurate reading is indicated on the
scale. The jaws are insulated, and the Bakelite handle and shield
protect the technician from shock. The meter is operated by the
magnetic field set up by the current.

OHMMETER
This is used to measure the resistance of a circuit. Usually this is

found in combination with a voltmeter, and milliammeter, in a
device known as a MULTIMETER. Some Ohmmeters are very
precise, for laboratory use.
CAUTION! Never connect an ohmmeter to a circuit until the circuit

has been disconnected from the power source. The ohmmeter has its
own internal power supply, and connecting it across another power
source can cause serious accident.

VOLTMETER
Voltmeters are used to measure the voltage that exists in a circuit. Typically,
the technician selects an appropriate scale (0-150 volts, 0-250 volts, 0-500
volts, etc.), and then clamps one of the probes to one of the hot lines. The
other probe is then carefully put in contact with the other hot line, and the
meter shows the voltage. Voltmeters have very high resistance, in the range
of 15,000 Ohms, so that very little current flows in the voltmeter circuit; just
enough to cause the voltmeter to indicate voltage across its scale.
Whenever electric current passes through an electric conductor a magnetic

field is set up around it.(Note: Curl the fingers of your right hand with your
thumb pointing outwards. If the direction of your thumb points in the
direction of the flow of current. Then your fingers will point in the direction
of the magnetic field.) The higher the current the higher is the magnetic
field setup.

VOLTMETER
This principle is used in many electrical appliances like motors,

generators, solenoids and of course voltmeters and ammeters
(Ammeters are used to measure electric current).
To see this phenomenon hold a magnetic compass close to a motor or
generator, or even an electric wire. Make sure you dont touch the
equipment and have an adult nearby.Another simple experiment could
be done by turning a wire many times around a iron nail. Connect the
ends of the wire to a battery. This will deflect the magnetic compass.
The higher the number of turns the higher will be the deflection of the
compass.
Voltmeters contain a coil of high resistance suspended between 2
magnets. The ends of the coil are connected in parallel to the device
across which voltage is to be measured.

VOLTMETER
When current passes through the coil, it deflects since the magnetic field
setup in the coil repulses the magnetic field of the magnets. The coil is
suspended on springs (usually made of phosphor bronze ) which restrict
its movement. The springs deflect to balance the force exerted by the
change in magnetic field in proportion to the current that passes through
the coil.
What follows is some theory on magnetic field effects on current
carrying conductors. This will help you do some calculations for your
project if needed.Consider the ends of a magnet (say a horseshoe
magnet) kept facing each other at some distance. Put a coil of wire
between the ends such that it can rotate freely about an axis
perpendicular to the magnet. If you pass a
current through this coil you will find that the coil will try to turn (ie:
The current will set up a magnetic field opposing that of the magnet.
This will cause a torque to be setup.)
This torque can be calculated by the equation:

VOLTMETER
T = niAB sinO
Where,
T: Torque
n: Number of turns of the coil
i: Current in the coil
A: Area of each turn
B: Strength of the magnetic field.
O: The angle between the direction of the magnetic field (ie:
The
direction of the 2 poles of the magnet from north to south) and
a normal
(perpendicular line) to the area of the coil.

DIGITAL MULTIMETER
This is probably the most useful instrument in an electricians

toolbox. It is a combination of ohmmeter, voltmeter, and
milliammeter. A good meter measures ohms, AC volts, DC volts,
and AC and DC amperes (at least up to 300 milliamperes), as well as
provides a continuity tester (audible) that measures continuity
within a component (such as a fuse). Typically the multimeter has
different sockets for the probes to connect to. One probe goes to
Common, and the other is connected either to Volts/Ohms, or to
Amps.

DIGITAL MULTIMETER
CAUTION! Never connect the multimeter Hot probe to the Amps socket
when measuring Volts. There is an internal power source which supplies its
own voltage when making Amperage measurements; applying an external
voltage to this internal circuit can cause serious damage. Most good
multimeters have an internal fuse to prevent the most serious damage;
however, it is still a nuisance to replace fuses.
After connecting the probes to the appropriate sockets, the technician

selects the type of measurement being made. The correct scale may have to
be selected also, if the multimeter is not autoscaling. One probe should
then be clamped to one part of the circuit being measured for safety, and
then the other carefully put into contact with the other side. The meter
displays the value, and usually the unit of measurement.

ENERGY METER
The electromechanical induction meter operates by counting the

revolution of a disc which is made to rotate at a speed proportional
to the power usage. Aluminium disc is supported by a spindle with
worm gear.
The meter works on an induction principle. Two laminated

electromagnets, one of which is excited by the current and the other
by current proportional to the voltage across the load. The pressure
coil is made highly inductive so that the current lags behind the
voltage by 90o. A third aluminium disc is mounted so as to cut the
flux from both the magnets and it is free to rotate. In induction
meters, we have two fluxes produced by current flowing in the
winding of instrument.

ENERGY METER
These fluxes are alternating in nature and so they produce emf in a

disc. Consequently, two torques are produced. Total torque is the
sum of two torques. Disc speed is proportional to the power
consumed. Number of revolutions is proportional to energy usage.
The eddy currents produced in the disc effects in such a way that a
force is exerted on the disc in proportion to the product of the
instantaneous current and voltage.A permanent magnet placed on
the disc, exerts an opposing force proportional to the speed of the
rotation of the disc. This acts as a brake. Disc stops spinning when
power is not consumed.

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
The role of the instrument transformers:

To provide accurate inputs to the protection control and the metering
system.
The main task of CT/PTs:
1. To transform currents/voltages from a high value to a value easy to
handle for relays and meters.
2. To insulate the metering circuits from primary high currents and votage
system.
3. To provide possibilities of standardising the instrument and relays to a
few rated currents and voltages.
4. The line or bus bar itself acts as a primary of the CT. Magnitude of the
secondary winding depends on the designed ratio.

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
Safety:
Care must be taken that the secondary of a CT must be never left
open circuit or without load. Open cT secondary will allow to
continue driving current across the effectively infinite imedence.
This will produce high voltage across the open secondary(several
kilo volts) which may cause arcing and an electrical shock or burn.
Sometimes CT may burst resulting into a fire.

INSULATION RESISTANCE
Definition: The ability of a material to resist the current

flowing in the unwanted direction.It is opposite to the
conductor. In a sense, it is a poor conductor. It is determined
by measuring the leakage of current which flows through
the insulation.

TESTING: HOW & WHY
Insulation resistance testing is very important. 80% of electrical

maintenance and testing involves evaluating insulation integrity.
Electrical insulation starts to deteriorate as soon as it's made. And,
aging deteriorates its performance due to temperature extremes
and/or chemical contamination. This is detrimental to personnel
safety and power reliability Its important to detect this
deterioration as quickly as possible so you can take the necessary
corrective measures.

WHAT IS INSULATION TESTING?
Basically, you're applying a voltage ( a highly regulated, stabilized

DC voltage) across a dielectric, measuring the amount of current
flowing through that dielectric, and then calculating (using Ohm's
Law) a resistance measurement. Let's clarify our use of the term
"current." We're talking about leakage current. The resistance
measurement is in megohms. You use this resistance measurement
to evaluate insulation integrity.Current flow through a dielectric
may seem somewhat contradictory, but remember, no electrical
insulation is perfect. So, some current will flow.

PURPOSE OF INSULATION TESTING ?
You can use it as:

A quality control measure at the time a piece of electrical equipment is
produced;
An installation requirement to help ensure specifications are met and
to verify proper hookup;
A periodic preventive maintenance task; and
A troubleshooting tool.

MEGGER
The Megger instrument is used for measuring the insulation

resistance of electrical devices. The crank on the end powers a
DC generator connected to a specially designed meter. Two labels
indicating the polarity of the terminals because to check
electrolytic capacitors.

HOW TO USE THESE INSTRUCTIONS
To test insulation between circuit and earth, connect one terminal

to the circuit and the other to a good earth. To test between a
winding and its frame connect one terminal to the winding and the
other to the frame. For a test between conductors connect one to
each terminal. Having made the connections turn the handle at
about 160 r.p.m. The resistance is then indicated on the scale.

NEVER TOUCH THE TEST LEADS WHILE
THE MEGGER IS BEING USED.
Make sure that the item you are checking is deenergised, discharged
and isolated before using the megger. Normal insulations should
read infinity. Any small resistance reading indicates the insulation is
breaking down. The circuit or item you are testing may have
considerable capacitance and retain an electrical charge after testing.
After you make your connections, you apply the test voltage for 1
min. The insulation resistance reading should drop or remain
relatively steady. This is because electrical insulation materials
exhibit capacitance and will charge up during the course of the test.
After 1 min, you should read and record the resistance value.

WHAT AFFECTS INSULATION
RESISTANCE READINGS?
Apart from dirt and damp insulation resistance is temperature-

sensitive. When temperature increases, insulation resistance
decreases, and vice versa. A common rule of thumb is insulation
resistance changes by a factor of two for each 10 degree C change.
So, to compare new readings with previous ones, youll have to
correct your readings to some base temperature. For example,
suppose you measured 100 megohms with an insulation
temperature of 30C. A corrected measurement at 20C would be 200
megohms (100 megohms times two). It is also worth bearing in
mind that as time goes by the quality of insulating materials
gradually deteriorates (especially at elevated temperatures).

HOW DOES IT WORKS?
The construction and connections are shown below. The moving

system consists of two coils, the control coil and the deflecting
coil-rigidly mounted at an angle to one another and connected, in
parallel across a small generator, with polarities such that the
torques produced by them are in opposition. The coils move in the
air gap of a permanent magnet. The control coil is in series with a
fixed control circuit; the deflecting coil is connected in series with a
fixed deflecting circuit resistance and the resistance under test. If
this last is infinitely high no current flows in the deflecting coil and
the control coil sets itself perpendicular to the magnetic axis, the
pointer indicating Infinity. A lower test resistance allows current
to flow in the deflecting coil and turns the movement clockwise. The
control torque produces a restoring torque which progressively
increases with the angular deflection, and the equilibrium position
of the movement is attained when the two opposing torques balance

MEGGER

MEGGER
.The control coil is actually in two parts, in series, the outer part
being a compensating coil. The two parts are arranged with
numbers of turns and radii of action such that, for external
magnetic fields of uniform intensity, their torques cancels one
another thus giving an astatic combination.
The instrument has a small permanent magnet d.c. generator

developing 500 V DC. (Other models have 100, 250, 1,000 or
2,500 V generators). The generator is hand-driven, through
gearing and a centrifugally controlled clutch which slips at a
predetermined speed so that a steady voltage can be obtained

MEGGER
The guard terminal (if fitted) acts as a shunt to remove the

connected element from the measurement. In other words, it
allows you to be selective in evaluating certain specific
components in a large piece of electrical equipment. For
example consider a two core cable with a sheath. As the
diagram below shows there are three resistances to be
considered.
If we measure between core B and sheath without a
connection to the guard terminal some current will pass from
B to A and from A to the sheath. Our measurement would be
low. By connecting the guard terminal to A the two cable cores
will be at very nearly the same potential and thus the
shunting effect is eliminated.

MEGGER

ELECTRICAL
CABLES

ELECTRICAL CABLES
Electric supply has to be distributed from one place to another. In

cities the same is done by laying underground cables. In cross
country and in rural areas, distribution of power supply is done
through overhead lines of bare An electrical cable is defined as
being an insulated electrical conductor.
This training is not meant to provide the trainee with an in-depth
study of cable sizing, selection or methods of installation.
It is meant to provide:
1. A general appreciation of the factors that should be generally

considered when confronted with cabling information; and
2. A general understanding on what is involved in sizing and
installing electrical cables.

ELECTRICAL CABLES
Philosophy:
The sole function of an electric cabling system is the transfer of

electric power. The load to be supplied can be in the form of a
small indicating lamp to a large generator transformer.

ELECTRICAL CABLES
Any cabling system must meet the following requirements:
Safety
1. The cable must be able to withstand the voltage to which it will
normally be subjected;
2. A cabling system must be installed in such a manner that it presents
no danger to any person likely to come in contact with the cables;
3. The cables must not develop a hazard by induction, or through other
means, in otherequipment; and
4. The type of insulation must suit the type of installation and the
environment. The temperature rating of the cable must be suited
to ambient conditions. Also if the cable is to be installed where it
is subject to direct sunlight, resistance to UV becomes a factor. If
the cable is to be installed in an area where it is subjected to
flammable dust or liquid, additional factors must be considered.

ELECTRICAL CABLES
Conductor sizing
The cables must be able to conduct power in a manner that will
allow the connected device to operate to its full capacity. The cable
must be able to conduct the full load current without causing any
significant voltage drop at the terminals of the load connection. In
considering this factor, the starting current requirements of the
connected device has also to be taken into consideration and the
cable must be able to withstand a fault on the system to which it is
connected.
Installation requirements
1. The installation of cables Wiring Rules;
2. The cable support must protect the cable from any reasonable
chance of damage; and
3. The cable also must be protected from the detrimental effects of
the environment in which the cable is installed.
CABLE CONSTRUCTION
Conductors
Copper and aluminium materials for conductors:
Aluminium conductors of cross-sectional area less than 16 mm2 have
proved difficult to terminate due to its tendency to 'cold flow'.
Therefore below 16 mm2 , aluminium cables are not generally used
Copper is a better conductor than aluminium. To achieve the same
current flow as a copper conductor, an aluminium conductor would
need to have 1.6 times the cross sectional area. Because of the
equivalent aluminium conductor requiring a larger cross sectional area
than that of copper the size of the cable is larger. This will require
greater space to terminate an aluminium conductor than a copper
conductor of equivalent current carrying capacity. The termination of
an aluminium conductor requires great care to avoid the formation of
aluminium oxide on the metal surface, which will interfere with the
conductivity of the termination.

CABLE CONSTRUCTION
Aluminium conductors cost less than copper conductors.

Aluminium conductors have approximately half the specific gravity
as copper conductors.
various standard specifications and the Wiring Rules should be

considered during the sizing of the conductors.

CABLE CONSTRUCTION
In most cases the main factors to be considered are:
1. Current required by the load being supplied. This includes

the rated full load and the starting current (if applicable);
2. Possible short circuit withstand currents;
3. Type of protection being provided for the circuit to which the
cable is to be connected;
4. Method of the cable laying: underground direct buried,
underground in conduit, above ground, in cable ladders, etc.);
and
5. The maximum ambient temperatures expected to be
encountered by the cable.

INSULATION
The type of insulation is influenced by a number of factors such as:
1. The maximum operating voltage of the cable; and

2. The temperature at which the cable is exposed to and withstand.
This influences the quality and type of the insulation, coverings,
sheathings, insulating sleeves on connections and sealing
compounds used on the cable.

ELECTRICAL CABLES
The current carrying capacity for Mineral Insulated Metal Sheathed

(MIMS) cables are based on an operating temperature of 100 C for the
external surface of either bare metal sheathed or served cables. Higher
continuous operating temperatures are permissible for bare metal
sheathed cables, dependant upon factors such as:
1. The suitability of the cable terminations and mountings;

2. The location of the cable away from the combustible materials;
3. The location of the cable away from areas where there is a
reasonable chance of persons touching the exposed surface; and
4. Other environmental and external influences.

ELECTRICAL CABLES
The minimum temperature of use of MIMS cables will be dependent on the

cable seal used and manufacturer's recommendations should be followed.
Current carrying capacities determined in accordance with the AS/NZS

3008.1 series, do not take into account the effect of temperature rise on the
terminals of electrical equipment. This can result in the temperature limits
of the insulation of cables in the vicinity of the terminals exceeding the
limits otherwise specified. In such cases reference should be made to
warnings given in the electrical equipment Standards.
For power cables, the colour coding of the cable cores is designated in the
standards and the Wiring Rules.

ELECTRICAL CABLES
The cable cores (the conductors) are encased in an outer sheath to provide
additional protection and insulation. Typical combinations of outer
sheathing and protection are:
1. On 415 volt cables, the outer covering is a PVC sheath and the insulation
described as PVC-PVC;
2. Mechanical protection can be provided by placing steel or aluminium wire

along the length of the cable between a plastic bedding material wrapped
around the insulated cores and the outer sheath;
3. Higher voltage cables are generally subject to greater electrical stresses
than 415 volt cables. This is due to them normally being connected to loads
of higher fault ratings through circuit breakers rather than fuses. The circuit
breakers do not restrict the fault current as much as fuses thereby placing
the high voltage cable under greater stress.

ELECTRICAL CABLES
To assist in overcoming electrical stresses the high voltage cable is

manufactured with conductor core screens. The conductor core
screen normally consists of an extruded layer of semi-conducting
support tape, which prevents the extruded material being 'lost'
between the conductor strands. The insulation screen may be either
an extruded layer of semi-conducting material or a semi-conducting
varnish applied direct to the insulation surface, with a semi-
conducting tape applied over it as protection against mechanical
damage from the metallic screen.

ELECTRICAL CABLES
Where extruded screens are used, these should be 'cold strippable' to ease
the process of terminating. A helically applied copper tape screen is
provided over the semi-conducting insulation screen to carry both leakage
and fault currents. A PVC inner sheath is provided over the copper tape to
provide a bedding for the armour wires. This inner sheath also provides a
secondary moisture barrier to prevent water reaching the primary
insulation in the event of the outer sheath being damaged. The cable
construction is completed by applying a layer of aluminium armour wires,
these being non-ferrous to avoid eddy current heating. Finally an outer
PVC sheath is applied

ELECTRICAL CABLES
For 11 kV cables, the choice of insulation is usually between paper

and polymeric. Paper insulated cables have lead or alloy sheaths
and in consequence are heavier and more difficult to terminate and
install than plastic insulated cables. Plastic insulated cables can be
made more fire retardant than paper insulated cables and are
therefore preferred for power station applications. The preferred
insulation for 11kV cables used in power stations is of the
thermosetting type, i.e. XLPE or EPR. These give a conductor
continuous operating temperature of 900C and a short circuit
temperature of 2500C. Thermosetting materials give significant
benefits since short circuit requirements and resultant temperature
effects often dictate the size of 11 kV cables.

ELECTRICAL CABLES
Typical construction diagrams of several types of cables can be

viewed at the bottom of this page:
1. 11 kV single core cable;
2. 3.3 kV single core cable; and
3. 3.3 kV multi-core cable.

ELECTRICAL CABLES

ELECTRICAL CABLES

ELECTRICAL CABLES

INSTALLATION
The requirements for the installation of cables under the Wiring

Rules AS/NZS 3000: Precautions that must be considered for the
long-term reliability of the cables:
1. Adequate support of the cables - Insufficient support of the cables
can place strain on the cables causing premature electrical and or
mechanical failure;
2. Selection of cables that are unsuitable for the ambient

temperatures. Cables are selected of the right type and construction
to suit the surrounding temperatures to prevent it to fail under short
circuit conditions/ insulation deterioration;
3. Change of original installed conditions can cause cable problems.

For example, cables originally installed as open wiring and then
covered with heat absorbent material can become overheated if
operating at maximum rating and could cause a fire;
ELECTRICAL CABLES
4. Bending radiuses should not be less than 15 times the cable

diameter. This is particularly important for larger diameter
cables and cables of medium voltage and above. Tables are
available which recommend radii Vs cable diameter and type;
5. The withstand capability of cable fixing methods needs
consideration. For example, if three single-phase cables are
installed in trefoil, care must be taken to ensure to ensure that
the clamps used are of sufficient mechanical strength to
withstand the effects of a cable fault;
6. Where cables are installed in a location where they can be

subject to mechanical damage, they must be given suitable
mechanical protection

ELECTRICAL CABLES
When terminating cables, correct terminating accessories must

be used. If terminating lugs are used they must be:
-Of the correct material to suit the conductor. This is particularly
important if the conductor is aluminium;
-The lugs must be of the correct size and type for the
terminating procedure used and the cable size;
-The terminating of the lugs must be carried out with tools of
the correct type and size to suit the lug and cable size;
-The terminal to which each cable core is to be fixed must be of a
size suited to the size of the cable;

ELECTRICAL CABLES
-There should be sufficient space in the terminal box to

maintain safe electrical clearances and allow the terminations
to be carried out without undue bending of the cables;
-Segregation of cables should be maintained to prevent undue
heating and induction. This is most important in respect to the
separation of power and control or communication cables.
Bunching of cables in cable ladders or if passing through
openings can result in cables becoming overheated and
failing; and
-Cables should be identified with cable numbers and the
cores identified with wire numbers. This is important in
assisting trouble shooting and reconnection at a later date.

MAINTENANCE
Cable maintenance consists primarily of:
1. To Check its insulation resistance between phases and to

earth;
To Check the cable insulation for physical deterioration or

damage,
2. To Check the terminations for signs of overheating and

damage,
and suitable tightness of the connections; and
3. To Check cable installations for change in original installation
conditions.
4.To ensure that mechanical protection is in place and in good
condition where deemed necessary
CABLE SIZE AND TYPE DESIGNATION
Cable size and type, depends on :
The cable's cross sectional area,
The operating voltage and t
The insulation required. Examples :
100 metres; 3.5 core + E copper; 16 mm2; 0.6/1.0 kV; PVC-PVC.

This indicates that 100 metres of cable are required. The cable has 5
cores:
Three cores of cross sectional area equal to 16 mm2;
1. One reduced diameter core for the neutral connection; and
2. One core for the earth connection.
3. All these cores are of copper.

CABLE SIZE AND TYPE DESIGNATION
The cable is to be suitable for voltages up to 1.0 kV. The insulation

structure is to be PVC on the cores and a sheath of PVC as the
outside cover.
1000 metres; 12 core + E; 4 mm2; 0.6/1.0 kV; PVC/PVC - cores white

with black numbers 1 to 12 with outer sheath black.
This describes a control cable of 1000 metres in length, with 12 cores
of copper conductor each of 4mm2 cross sectional area, insulated in
white PVC and suitable for a voltage up to 1.0kV.
Each core to be numbered in black inscription in order to provide
ready core identification. The outer sheath is to be black in colour.
An earth core is also required

LIGHTING CIRCUITS

LIGHTING CIRCUITS
The starter is used to cause the preheating of the cathodes

inside the fluorescent tube before it is started. Once the
fluorescent tube has been started the tube conducts electricity
and emits light (fluoresces) via the phosphorous coating on
the inside the of glass tube. The starter is not required for this
to continue and can be removed until the light is turned off.
The starter is essentially two bimetallic strips in a sealed glass
capsule, with a small gap between them. The glass capsule
contains a conductive gas, allowing sparks to travel across the
gap. A capacitor may be connected in parallel to this (as
shown in the photos below). This capacitor suppresses the RF
noise generated by the device during start up, which would
otherwise interfere with radios, televisions and other electrical
equipment.

LIGHTING CIRCUITS
The starter is connected in series with the cathodes at each end of

the fluorescent tube, and it is connected between them so that it is in
parallel with the tube itself. A ballast device is connected in series
with this pair to control the current once the lamp has been started.
This is shown in the diagram below.

LIGHTING CIRCUITS
When the light is switched on, the tube does not conduct, and
current flows through the cathodes to preheat them and also
through the starter. This causes sparks between the two
bimetallic strips inside the starter, which then heat up. The heat
causes the bimetallic strips to bend together, and the gap closes.
When the two strips touch a high current flows, but the lack of
sparks allows the strips to cool down. The cooling strips then
separate and the voltage reappears across the length of the
fluorescent tube. By this time the cathodes have been heated
sufficiently, and when the voltage appears across the tube it arcs
down the length and the tube ignites. If the tube does not start,
the starter continues to spark and the cycle repeats.
In some starters the bimetallic strips bend apart as they heat.
This also causes the sparks to stop, igniting the tube and
allowing the strips to cool down. The starter shown here works
on the first method. This was proven by placing the glass
capsule on the cooker hob and watching the gap between the
strips close.
LIGHTING CIRCUITS
The ballast used in this circuit is essentially a choke and

capacitor in series. The capacitor corrects the phase lag caused
by the choke and improves the efficiency. The inductance of the
choke causes a voltage spike when the starter switches off. This
is due to the sudden change in current flow and can help
achieve the initial spark required to start the fluorescent tube.
The choke controls the current once the tube has been started, as
it has a high impedance at the operating frequency of the tube
(about 20kHz). It has a low impedance during start-up when the
mains current flows through the cathodes and starter at 50Hz.
Other types of starter are also available, including solid state
devices that allow the cathodes to preheat for a fixed length of
time and will only try to start the tube a limited number of
times. These starters are more expensive of course, but are able
to start the tube if the supply voltage is lower or the ambient
temperature is too hot or too cold for a conventional starter.

LIGHTING CIRCUITS
The choke has two main functions. It (in conjunction with the starter if
it has one) causes the tube to ignite by using the back emf to create a
plasma in the tube and it controls the current through the tube when it
is ignited.
In a gas discharge, such as a fluorescent lamp, current causes resistance

to decrease. This is because as more electrons and ions flow through a
particular area, they bump into more atoms, which frees up electrons,
creating more charged particles. In this way, current will climb on its
own in a gas discharge, as long as there is adequate voltage (and
household AC current has a lot of voltage). If the current in a
fluorescent light isn't controlled, it can blow out the various electrical
components.

LIGHTING CIRCUITS
A fluorescent lamp's ballast works to control this. The simplest

sort of ballast, generally referred to as a magnetic ballast, works
something like an inductor

ELECTRICAL DRAWINGS?
Schematic drawings explain electrical circuits. First you must know

the basic requirements for any circuit.
1. All circuits must do work. ( without a load the wiring becomes the
load and it burns up. This is known as a short circuit.
2. All circuits must have an electrical path. From a voltage sourse to

a load and back to the source.
3. There must be a way to control the electrical force. for example to

turn it on and off.
When looking at schematics there are essential questions you should

ask yourself. What is the intent of the circuit? How is it controlled?
Where is the load? What is the load? Where the controlling is/are
switches...etc? Is the control voltage the same as the load voltage?
What coil controls what contacts?
ELECTRICAL DRAWINGS?
Schematics are often laid out as ladder diagrams. These show each
simple circuit one at a time. IF they are now laid out a ladder
diagrams many find it useful to redraw the schematics to put them
in that form.
Schematics use symbols it represent different parts of the circuit.

Often circles will denote a coil portion of a relay (or automatic
switch) Often there will be a letter in the circle to identify the coil.
That letter will also be assigned to sets of contacts that that coil
operates. Contacts can be NO normally open or NC normally
closed. Normally closed means that there is an electrical path across
the contacts when the coil is not energized. Normally open means
that the switch is off or there is no electrical path across the switch
when the controlling coil is not energized.

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Basic Electrical Theory

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After completing this couse you will be able :

To refresh the basic electricity theory learnt in colleges

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Electricity is just the flow of electrons through a conductor.

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The ability of a material to let go of its electrons is called

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Static electricity is an electric charge that builds up in an object.

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This charge can accumulate in an object if is not discharged. For

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Two basic rules for electrical charges:

1. Like charges repel, and opposite charges attract.

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A DC power source, such as a battery, outputs a constant

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Combinations of certain metals, such as copper and zinc, will

Common dry cell batteries work on a similar principle with a

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Storage batteries produce electricity from chemical action somewhat

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Electrons move through a conductor- have some electrons that are

Two types of electric currents are DC or direct current, and AC or

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A.C.:In this form of current, the direction of electron flow is

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Electricity has four basic characteristics:

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The unit of current is the ampere.

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All materials oppose the current flow, and this opposition

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One (1) Ohm is the opposition to electrical flow that results in

Other materials, conductors despite having some insulating

A volt is a unit of EMF or electromotive force, and is defined as

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The relationship between electrical power, current, voltage, and

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A circuit that has two or more current paths is a parallel circuit.

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The total current supplied to a parallel circuit is equal to the sum

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Certain circumstances require the use of Series/Parallel, or

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A capacitor is a component made from two (or two sets of)

When an AC current is applied across the capacitor, it will charge

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An inductor is made of a coil of wire. When current flows through an

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Being a magnetic material, the iron core increases the inductance

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A conductor is any material that offers little opposition (resistance)

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