Lecture 02

Lecture Presentation
Chapter 2
The Quantum-
Mechanical Model
of the Atom
Catherine E. MacGowan
Armstrong State University
2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Quantum Mechanics:
The Atomic Model that Explains the Strange
Behavior of Electrons
Early twentieth century scientists begin investigating the
absolutely small (quantum) world of matter.
Scientists: Albert Einstein, Neils Bohr, Louis de Broglie, Max
Planck, Werner Heisenberg, P. A. M. Dirac, and Erwin
Schrdinger
Their investigative work laid the foundation of our current

understanding of matter and its behavior at the subatomic
(absolutely small) level.
Subatomic particles of matter: electrons, protons, neutrons

Quantum Mechanics: The Atomic Model that
Explains the Strange Behavior of Electrons
They discovered the following:
Absolutely small matter (extremely small pieces of matter,
such as the electron) behaved MUCH differently than matter
of the macroscopic (large, such as an element or a
molecule) world.
Absolutely small matter behaved strangely:

Subatomic particles appeared to exist in two conditions;
they had a natural duality.
Example: The electron presented particulate behavior (mass,
volume) under a set of experimental conditions and exhibited
energy-like characteristics under a different set of experimental
parameters.
Wavematter duality concept

The Behavior of Very Small Particles
Electrons are incredibly small pieces of matter.

The number of electrons in a single speck of dust is
higher than the number of people who have ever lived
on Earth.
Directly observing electrons in the atom is impossible;
the electron is so small that observing it changes its
behavior.
Even shining a light on the electron would affect it.
Much of the behavior of atoms is determined by

the electron.

What Does the Quantum Mechanical Model
Tell about an Atoms Electrons?
It explains the manner in which electrons exist and
behave in atoms.
It is the light wave (energy) nature, not the particulate
(matter) characteristics of the electron, that dictates/
explains the chemical and physical properties
of matter.
The electron can no longer be viewed as a small piece
of matter orbiting around the nucleus but as a cloud of
most probable positions.

What Does the Quantum Mechanical Model
Tell about an Atoms Electrons?
It forms the foundation of chemistry by explaining:
The periodic tableits trends
The behavior of elements in chemical bonding
The colors of the atoms and also their size
It predicts the atomic properties that are directly related to

the behavior of the electrons:
Why some elements are metals and others are nonmetals
Why some elements gain one electron when forming an
anion, whereas others gain two
Why some elements are very reactive, while others are
practically inert
Why in other periodic patterns we see the properties of
the elements
The Nature of Light: Its Wave Nature
Light is
A form of electromagnetic radiation
Composed of perpendicular oscillating waves, one for the
electric field and one for the magnetic field
An electric field is a region where an electrically charged
particle experiences a force.
A magnetic field is a region where a magnetized particle
experiences a force.
All electromagnetic waves move through space at

the same constant speed.
3.00 108 m/s = the speed of light

Electromagnetic Radiation: Oscillating
Electric and Magnetic Field Waves
Electromagnetic radiation can be described as a wave

comprising oscillating electric and magnetic fields that are
perpendicular within their planes.

What Are the Characteristics of Energy
Waves?
Amplitude:
The height of the wave
The distance from node to
crest or node to trough
The amplitude is a measure of
light intensitythe larger the
amplitude, the brighter the light.
Wavelength ( or lambda):
A measure of the distance
covered by the wave
The distance from one crest to
the next, the distance from one
trough to the next, the distance
between alternate nodes
Amplitude and Wavelength
Wavelength and
amplitude are
independent properties.
The wavelength of light

determines its color
(intensive physical
property).
The amplitude, or
intensity, determines its
brightness (extensive
physical property).
Color
The color of light is determined by its wavelength or

frequency.
White light is a mixture of all the

colors of visible light.
A spectrum
Red Orange Yellow Green
Blue Indigo Violet
When an object absorbs some of the wavelengths of white

light and reflects others, it appears colored; the observed
color is predominantly the colors reflected.

What Are the Characteristics of Energy
Waves?
Frequency ( or nu):
The number of waves that pass a point in a given period
of time
The number of waves = the number of cycles.
Units are hertz (Hz) or cycles/s = s1 (1 Hz = 1 s1).
Total energy (E):

Proportional to the amplitude of the waves and their
frequency
The larger the amplitude, the more force it has.
The more frequently the waves strike, the more total force
there is.

The Relationship Between Wavelength and
Frequency
Waves traveling at the same speed will have a shorter
wavelength, so they pass more frequently.
Meaning: The wavelength and frequency of
electromagnetic waves are inversely proportional.
Long wavelength low frequency
Short wavelength high frequency
Mathematically:
Because the speed of light is constant, if we know the

wavelength we can find the frequency, and vice versa.

Problem Solving: Wavelength versus
Frequency
Example 2.1 Wavelength and Frequency
Calculate the wavelength (in nm) of the red light emitted by a barcode scanner that has a frequency
of 4.62 1014 s1.
Solution
You are given the frequency of the light and asked to find its wavelength. Use Equation 2.1, which relates
frequency to wavelength. You can convert the wavelength from meters to nanometers by using the conversion
factor between the two (1 nm = 10 9 m).
For Practice 2.1

A laser dazzles the audience at a rock concert by emitting green light with a wavelength of 515 nm. Calculate the
frequency of the light.
Answers to For Practice and For More Practice problems are found in Appendix IV.

Electromagnetic Spectrum

The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Visible light (400 to 700 nm) comprises only a small

fraction of all the wavelengths of light, called the
electromagnetic spectrum.
Shorter wavelength (high-frequency) light has

higher energy.
Radio-wave light has the lowest energy.
Gamma-ray light has the highest energy.
High-energy electromagnetic radiation (e.g., UV, X-ray,

gamma) can potentially damage biological molecules.
Ionizing radiation

Problem Solving: Areas of the
Electromagnetic Spectrum

Wave Behavior Properties: Interference
The interaction between waves (e.g., electromagnetic,
ocean) is called interference.
Interference Types:
Constructive interference: Waves that interact so that they add
to make a larger wave are said to be in phase.
Destructive interference: Waves that interact so that they cancel

each other are said to be out of phase.

Wave Behavior Properties: Diffraction
When traveling waves encounter an obstacle or opening in a barrier
that is about the same size as the wavelength, they bend around it; this
is called diffraction.
Traveling particles do not diffract.
The diffraction of light through two slits separated by a distance
comparable to the wavelength results in an interference pattern of the
diffracted waves.
An interference pattern is a characteristic of all light waves.

Two-Slit Interference
As light is passed through two slits, two interfering waves result.
The difference in path length that the light travels determines if

the interference will be constructive or destructive in nature.

Einstein and the Photoelectric Effect
Einstein observed that when light is shined on a metal surface,
electrons are produced from the surface.
The electrons emitted from the metal surface are photoelectrons.
This phenomenon is called the photoelectric effect.

Explaining the Photoelectric Effect
Classic theory explanation:

The photoelectric effect according to classic wave theory
attributed the electrons being emitted from the metal
surface to the light energy being transferred to the
electrons.
Classic theory states the following:
If the wavelength of light is made shorter or the light waves
intensity is made brighter, more electrons should be ejected.
Energy of a wave is directly proportional to its amplitude and
its frequency.
Example: If a dim light is used, there should be a lag time
before electrons are emitted in order to give the electrons time
to absorb enough energy.

Einsteins explanation:
Quantum theory
Experimental observations
indicate the following:
A minimum frequency was
needed before electrons
would be emitted
regardless of the intensity,
called the threshold
frequency.
High-frequency light from
a dim source caused
electron emission without
any lag time.

Einsteins explanation: Quantum theory
Einstein proposed that the light energy was delivered to the atoms
in packets called quanta or photons.
Energy = (h)
quanta
The energy of a photon of light is directly proportional to

its frequency.
E = hc/
Or it is inversely proportional to its wavelength
Symbols:
Plancks Constant, (h) is a proportionality constant with a
value of h = 6.626 1034 J s.
Speed of light (c) value is 3.00 108 m/s
Problem Solving: E = hc/
Example 2.2 Photon Energy
A nitrogen gas laser pulse with a wavelength of 337 nm contains 3.83 mJ of energy. How many photons does it
contain?
SORT You are given the wavelength and total energy of a light pulse and asked to find the number of photons
it contains.
GIVEN Epulse = 3.83 mJ
= 337 nm
FIND number of photons
STRATEGIZE In the first part of the conceptual plan, calculate the energy of an individual photon from its
wavelength.
In the second part, divide the total energy of the pulse by the energy of a photon to get the number of photons in
the pulse.
CONCEPTUAL PLAN

Continued
RELATIONSHIPS USED
E = hc/ (Equation 2.3)
SOLVE To execute the first part of the conceptual plan, convert the wavelength to meters and substitute it into
Equation 2.3 to calculate the energy of a 337-nm photon.
To execute the second part of the conceptual plan, convert the energy of the pulse from mJ to J. Then divide the
energy of the pulse by the energy of a photon to obtain the number of photons.
SOLUTION

Continued
CHECK The units of the answer, photons, are correct. The magnitude of the answer (10 15) is reasonable. Photons
are small particles and any macroscopic collection should contain a large number of them.
For Practice 2.2

A 100-watt light bulb radiates energy at a rate of 100 J/s. (The watt, a unit of power, or energy over time, is defined as
1 J/s.) If all of the light emitted has a wavelength of 525 nm, how many photons are emitted per second? (Assume
three significant figures in this calculation.)
For More Practice 2.2

The energy required to dislodge electrons from sodium metal via the photoelectric effect is 275 kJ/mol. What
wavelength in nm of light has sufficient energy per photon to dislodge an electron from the surface of sodium?

Example 2.3 Wavelength, Energy, and Frequency
Arrange these three types of electromagnetic radiationvisible light, X-rays, and microwavesin order of
increasing:
a. wavelength b. frequency c. energy per photon
Solution
Examine Figure 2.5 and note that X-rays have the shortest wavelength, a. wavelength
followed by visible light and then microwaves. X-rays < visible < microwaves
Since frequency and wavelength are inversely proportionalthe b. frequency

longer the wavelength, the shorter the frequencythe ordering with microwaves < visible < X-rays
respect to frequency is the reverse of the order with respect to
wavelength.
Energy per photon decreases with increasing wavelength, but increases c. energy per photon
with increasing frequency; therefore the ordering with respect to microwaves < visible < X-rays
energy per photon is the same as for frequency.
For Practice 2.3

Arrange these three colors of visible lightgreen, red, and bluein order of increasing:
a. wavelength b. frequency c. energy per photon

Einsteins idea: Light Is Quantized.
Ejection of electrons from a metal surface by light:

One photon at the threshold frequency gives the
electron just enough energy for it to escape the atom.
Binding energy,
When irradiated with a shorter wavelength photon,
the electron absorbs more energy than is necessary
to escape.
This excess energy becomes kinetic energy of the
ejected electron.
Kinetic Energy = Ephoton Ebinding
KE = h
Where (h) is a quantized packet of energy

A metal will eject electrons from its surface
when struck by yellow light.
Question: What will happen If the surface is

struck with ultraviolet light?
1. No electrons will be ejected.
2. Electrons will be ejected, and they will have the same

kinetic energy as those ejected by yellow light.
3. Electrons will be ejected, and they will have greater

kinetic energy than those ejected by yellow light.
4. Electrons will be ejected, and they will have lower

A metal will eject electrons from its surface
when struck by yellow light.
Answer: What will happen If the surface is

struck with ultraviolet light?
1. No electrons will be ejected.
2. Electrons will be ejected, and they will have the same

kinetic energy as those ejected by yellow light.
3. Electrons will be ejected, and they will have greater

4. Electrons will be ejected, and they will have lower

Atomic Spectra: When Atoms Absorb
Energy (h)
When atoms or molecules absorb energy, that energy is
often released as light energy.
Fireworks, neon lights, etc.
When that emitted light is passed through a prism, a pattern

of particular wavelengths of light is seen that is unique to
that type of atom or molecule.
The pattern is called an emission spectrum.
Non-continuous or line spectra
Continuous or white light spectra
Line spectra can be used to identify the elements present in

a material as each element has its own unique line spectra.
Emission Spectra of Hydrogen
Elements have their own unique spectrum.
Example:
Hydrogen has four distinct lines in its visible spectrum.
Examples of Elemental Line Spectra in the
Visible Region

The Bohr Model of the Atom
The nuclear model of the atom (Rutherford model) does

not explain what structural changes occur when the atom
gains or loses energy.
Bohr developed a model of the atom to explain how the

structure of the atom changes when it undergoes energy
transitions.
Bohrs major idea was that the energy of the atom was
quantized, and that the amount of energy in the atom was
related to the electrons position in the atom.
Quantized means that the atom could have only very
specific amounts of energy.

Bohrs Model
The electrons travel in orbits that are at a fixed distance

from the nucleus.
Stationary states
Therefore, the energy of the electron was proportional to the
distance the orbit was from the nucleus.
Electrons emit radiation when they jump from an orbit

with higher energy down to an orbit with lower energy.
The emitted radiation was a photon of light.
The distance between the orbits determined the energy of
the photon of light produced.

Bohr Model of H Atoms

Wave Behavior of Electrons
De Broglie proposed that particles could have wave-like

character.
De Broglie predicted that the wavelength of a particle was

inversely proportional to its momentum.
Because it is so small, the wave character of electrons is

significant.
De Broglies relation: h
=
mv

Problem Solving Using De Broglies
Relation
Example 2.4 de Broglie Wavelength
Calculate the wavelength of an electron traveling with a speed of 2.65 106 m/s.
SORT You are given the speed of an electron and asked to calculate its wavelength.
GIVEN = 2.65 106 m/s
FIND
STRATEGIZE The conceptual plan shows how the de Broglie relation relates the wavelength of an electron to its
mass and velocity.
CONCEPTUAL PLAN
RELATIONSHIPS USED
= h/m (de Broglie relation, Equation 2.4)
SOLVE Substitute the velocity, Plancks constant, and the mass of an electron to calculate the electrons wavelength.
To correctly cancel the units, break down the J in Plancks constant into its SI base units (1 J = 1 kg m2/s2).

Problem Solving Using De Broglies
Relation
Example 2.4 de Broglie Wavelength
Continued
SOLUTION
CHECK The units of the answer (m) are correct. The magnitude of the answer is very small, as we would expect for
the wavelength of an electron.
For Practice 2.4

What is the velocity of an electron that has a de Broglie wavelength approximately the length of a chemical bond?
Assume this length to be 1.2 1010 m.

Electron Diffraction
If electrons behave only like particles, there should be only

two bright spots on the target.

Electron Diffraction
Proof that the electron had wave nature came a few years
later with the demonstration that a beam of electrons would
produce an interference pattern the same as waves do.
However, electrons
actually present an
interference pattern,
demonstrating they
behave like waves.

An Electrons Complementary Properties:
The Concept of Wave Duality and
Uncertainty
An electrons behavioral characteristics can be described
as follows:
From a particulate perspective (e.g., matter, mass)
Particle nature = position
From an energy perspective (e.g., wavelength, frequency)
Wave nature = interference pattern
Problem: cannot observe both properties simultaneously
The wave and particle nature of the electron are
complementary properties.
The more you know about one, the less you know about
the other.

Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle
Heisenberg stated that the product of the uncertainties in

both the position and speed of a particle was inversely
proportional to its mass.
x = position, x = uncertainty in position
v = velocity, v = uncertainty in velocity
m = mass
x mv > h/4
This means that the more accurately you know the

position of a small particle, such as an electron, the less
you know about its speed, and vice versa.

Determinacy versus Indeterminacy
According to classical physics, particles move in a path

determined by the particles velocity, position, and forces
acting on it.
Determinacy = definite, predictable future

Determinacy versus Indeterminacy
Because we cannot know both the position and velocity

of an electron, we cannot predict the path it will follow.
Indeterminacy = indefinite future, can only predict probability
The best we can do is to describe the probability an

electron will be found in a particular region using statistical
functions.

Indeterminacy Behavior of Electrons
Electron behavior is indeterminate.
Meaning, the path of an electron cannot be determined by its
position and velocity.
Electron energy and position are complementary.
KE = mv2
For an electron with a given energy, the best we can do is describe a
region in the atom of high probability of finding it.
Many of the properties of atoms are related to the energies of the
electrons.

Schrdingers Equation: H = E
Schrdingers equation allows us to calculate the

probability of finding an electron with a particular
amount of energy at a particular location in
the atom.
Solutions to Schrdingers equation produce many

wave functions, .
A plot of distance versus 2 represents an orbital,

a probability distribution map of a region where the
electron is likely to be found.
Quantum Numbers:
The Solutions from the Wave Function,
Calculations show that the size, shape, and orientation in space
of an orbital are determined to be three integer terms in the wave
function.
Added to quantize the energy of the electron
These integers (solutions) are called quantum numbers.
There are four quantum numbers:
Principal quantum number, n
Energy level
Angular momentum quantum number, l
Orbital type
Magnetic quantum number, ml
Position of orbital in an X-Y-Z plot
Spin quantum number, ms
Orientation of the spin of the electron
Principal Quantum Number, n:
The Energy Level
It characterizes the energy of the electron in a
particular orbital.
It is Bohrs energy level.
Values of n can be any whole number integer > 1.
It determines the size (overall) and energy of an

orbital.
The larger the value of n, the more energy the
orbital has.
The larger the value of n, the larger the orbital.

Principal Quantum Number, n:
The Energy Level
Energies are defined as being negative.
An electrons energy is lowered (made more negative) as
a result of its interaction with the nucleus of the atom.
An electron would have E = 0 when it escapes
the atom.
As n gets larger, the following occurs:

The amount of energy between orbitals gets smaller.
The energy of the orbital becomes greater (less negative).
En = 2.18 1018 J (1/n2) where n = 1, 2, 3, .

Principal Energy Levels in Hydrogen

Angular Momentum Quantum Number, l:
The Orbital Quantum Number
The angular momentum quantum number (l) determines
the shape of the orbital.
l can have integer values from 0 to (n 1).
Each l value is designated by a particular letter that
designates the shape of the orbital.
s orbitals are spherical.
Have l value of zero (0)
p orbitals are like two balloons tied at the knots (dumbbell
shape).
Have l value of one (1)
d orbitals are mainly like a flat four-leaf clover.
Have l value of two (2)
f orbitals are mainly like eight balloons tied at the knots.
Have l value of three (3)

The Relationship between n and l

Magnetic Quantum Number, ml: The
Position or Orientation Quantum Number
The magnetic quantum number is an integer that
specifies the orientation of the orbital.
The direction in space the orbital is aligned relative to
the other orbitals.
Values are integers from l to +l.

Including zero
Gives the number of orbitals of a particular shape
When l = 2, the values of ml are 2, 1, 0, +1, +2, which
means there are five orbitals with l = 2.

Spin Quantum Number, ms
The spin quantum number describes the spin

behavior (i.e., angular momentum) of an electron
in an atomic orbital.
It specifies the orientation of the electron in the orbital.
All electron spins are equal in magnitude; differ only in
orientation
The numerical values assigned are + (spin up)

or (spin down),

The Relationship between l and ml

Describing an Orbital
Each set of n, l, and ml describes one orbital.
Orbitals with the same value of n are in the

same principal energy level.
Also called the principal shell
Orbitals with the same values of n and l are

said to be in the same sublevel.
Also called a subshell

Illustration of Energy Levels and Sublevels
The n = 2 principal energy

level contains two sublevels:
a. The l = 0: 2s sublevel with

one orbital with ml = 0
b. The l = 1: 2p sublevel with

three p orbitals with
ml = 1, 0, +1

Quantum Number Practice
Example 2.5 Quantum Numbers I
What are the quantum numbers and names (for example, 2s, 2p) of the orbitals in the n = 4 principal level?
How many n = 4 orbitals exist?
Solution
First determine the possible values of l (from the given value of n). Then determine the possible values of ml for
each possible value of l. For a given value of n, the possible values of l are 0, 1, 2,..., (n 1).
n = 4; therefore l = 0, 1, 2, and 3
For a given value of l, the possible values of ml are the integer values including zero ranging from l to +l. The
name of an orbital is its principal quantum number (n) followed by the letter corresponding to the value l. The total
number of orbitals is given by n2.
For Practice 2.5

List the quantum numbers associated with all of the 5d orbitals. How many 5d orbitals exist?

Energy Levels and Sublevels
In general, the following are true:

The number of sublevels within a level = n.
The number of orbitals within a sublevel = 2l + 1.
The number of orbitals in a level = n2.

How Does the Quantum Mechanical Model
of an Atom Explain Atomic Spectra?
Each wavelength in the spectrum of an atom
corresponds to an electron transition between orbitals.
When an electron is excited, it transitions from an
orbital in a lower energy level to an orbital in a higher
energy level.
When an electron relaxes, it transitions from an
orbital in a higher energy level to an orbital in a lower
energy level.
When an electron relaxes, a photon of light is released
whose energy equals the energy difference between
the orbitals.

Electron Transitions: Excitations &
Radiation
To transition to a higher energy state, the electron must
gain the correct amount of energy corresponding to the
difference in energy between the final and initial states.
Electrons in high energy states are unstable and tend to
lose energy and transition to lower energy states.
Each line in the emission spectrum corresponds to the
difference in energy between two energy states.

It Predicts the Spectrum of Hydrogen
The wavelengths of lines in the emission spectrum

of hydrogen can be predicted by calculating the
difference in energy between any two states.
For an electron in energy state n, there are (n 1)

energy states it can transition to. Therefore, it can
generate (n 1) lines.
Both the Bohr and quantum mechanical models

can predict these lines very accurately for a
1-electron system.
Energy Transitions in Hydrogen
The energy of a photon released is equal to the

difference in energy between the two levels the
electron is jumping between.
It can be calculated by subtracting the energy of

the initial state from the energy of the final state.
Eelectron = Efinal state Einitial state

Hydrogen Energy Transitions and Radiation

Problem Solving: Determining Wavelength
from an Electron Transition
Example 2.7 Wavelength of Light for a Transition in the
Hydrogen Atom
Determine the wavelength of light emitted when an electron in a hydrogen atom makes a transition from an orbital
in n = 6 to an orbital in n = 5.
SORT You are given the energy levels of an atomic transition and asked to find the wavelength of emitted light.
GIVEN n = 6 n = 5
FIND
STRATEGIZE In the first part of the conceptual plan, calculate the energy of the electron in the n = 6 and n = 5
orbitals using Equation 2.6 and subtract to find Eatom.
In the second part, find Ephoton by taking the negative of Eatom, and then calculating the wavelength corresponding to a
photon of this energy using Equation 2.3. (The difference in sign between Ephoton and Eatom applies only to emission.
The energy of a photon must always be positive.)
CONCEPTUAL PLAN

Hydrogen Atom
Continued
RELATIONSHIPS USED
En = 2.18 1018 J(1/n2)
E = hc/
SOLVE Follow the conceptual plan. Begin by calculating Eatom.
SOLUTION
Calculate Ephoton by changing the sign of Eatom.

Hydrogen Atom
Continued
Solve the equation relating the energy of a photon to its

wavelength for . Substitute the energy of the photon and
calculate .
CHECK The units of the answer (m) are correct for wavelength. The magnitude is reasonable because 106 m is in the infrared
region of the electromagnetic spectrum. You know that transitions from n = 3 or n = 4 to n = 2 lie in the visible region, so it
makes sense that a transition between levels of higher n value (which are energetically closer to one another) would result in
light of longer wavelength.
For Practice 2.7

Determine the wavelength of the light absorbed when an electron in a hydrogen atom makes a transition from an orbital in which
n = 2 to an orbital in which n = 7.
For More Practice 2.7

An electron in the n = 6 level of the hydrogen atom relaxes to a lower-energy level, emitting light of = 93.8 nm. Find the
principal level to which the electron relaxed.

Probability and Radial Distribution Functions
and the Shapes of Atomic Orbitals
2 is the probability density.
It is the probability of finding an electron at a particular point in
space.
The probability densitythe area most likely to find
the atoms electron decreases as you move away from
the nucleus
The radial distribution function represents the total
probability at a certain distance from the nucleus.
Maximum at most probable radius
Nodes in the functions are where the probability drops to 0.

Probability Density Function
The probability density function represents the total

probability of finding an electron at a particular point
in space.

Radial Distribution Function
The radial distribution function
represents the total probability
of finding an electron within a thin
spherical shell at a distance r
from the nucleus.
The probability at a point decreases

with increasing distance from the
nucleus, but the volume of the
spherical shell increases.
The net result is a plot that indicates

that the most probable distance of
the electron in a 1s orbital of H is
52.9 pm.
An Illustration of 2s and 3s Atomic Orbitals

l = 0, the s Orbital
Each principal energy level

has one s orbital.
Lowest energy orbital in a

principal energy state
Spherical shaped
Number of nodes = (n 1).

l = 1, p orbitals
Each principal energy state above n = 1 has three
p orbitals.
ml = 1, 0, +1
Each of the three orbitals points along a different axis.

px, py, pz
The second lowest energy orbitals in a principal

energy state
Two-lobed
One node at the nucleus; total of n nodes

Illustration of the Three Types of p Orbitals

l = 2, d Orbitals
Each principal energy state above n = 2 has five d orbitals.
ml = 2, 1, 0, +1, +2
Four of the five orbitals are aligned in a different plane.

The fifth is aligned with the z axis, dz squared.
dxy, dyz, dxz, dx squared y squared
d orbitals:
Mainly four-lobed shaped orbitals
One has a two-lobed orbital with a ring/collar (toroid).
Planar nodes
Higher principal levels also have spherical nodes.
Illustration of the Five Types of d Orbitals

l = 3, f Orbitals
Each principal energy state above n = 3 has seven

f orbitals.
ml = 3, 2, 1, 0, +1, +2, +3
f orbitals:
Mainly eight-lobed
Some have a two-lobed orbital with a ring/collar (toroid).
Planar nodes
Higher principal levels also have spherical nodes.

Illustration of the Seven Types of f Orbitals

The Phase of an Orbital
Orbitals are determined from mathematical wave functions.
A wave function can have positive or negative values.
As well as nodes where the wave function = 0
The sign of the wave function is called its phase.
When orbitals interact, their wave functions may be in phase
(same sign) or out of phase (opposite signs).

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Lecture Presentation

Their investigative work laid the foundation of our current

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Absolutely small matter behaved strangely:

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Electrons are incredibly small pieces of matter.

Much of the behavior of atoms is determined by

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It predicts the atomic properties that are directly related to

All electromagnetic waves move through space at

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Electromagnetic radiation can be described as a wave

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The wavelength of light

The color of light is determined by its wavelength or

White light is a mixture of all the

When an object absorbs some of the wavelengths of white

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Total energy (E):

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Because the speed of light is constant, if we know the

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For Practice 2.1

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2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Visible light (400 to 700 nm) comprises only a small

Shorter wavelength (high-frequency) light has

High-energy electromagnetic radiation (e.g., UV, X-ray,

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2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Destructive interference: Waves that interact so that they cancel

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The difference in path length that the light travels determines if

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2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Classic theory explanation:

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2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

The energy of a photon of light is directly proportional to

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2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

For Practice 2.2

For More Practice 2.2

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Since frequency and wavelength are inversely proportionalthe b. frequency

For Practice 2.3

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Ejection of electrons from a metal surface by light:

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Question: What will happen If the surface is

2. Electrons will be ejected, and they will have the same

3. Electrons will be ejected, and they will have greater

4. Electrons will be ejected, and they will have lower

Answer: What will happen If the surface is

2. Electrons will be ejected, and they will have the same

3. Electrons will be ejected, and they will have greater

4. Electrons will be ejected, and they will have lower

When that emitted light is passed through a prism, a pattern

Line spectra can be used to identify the elements present in

Elements have their own unique spectrum.

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