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Application of Circuit Laws and Methods of Circuit

Analysis (AC Analysis)


Chapter 2
Subtopics
1. Dependent & Independent sources (5%)
2. Mesh Analysis (15%)
3. Nodal Analysis (15%)
4. Superposition Theorem (15%)
5. Source Transformation (15%)
6. Thevenin & Norton Theorem (25%)
7. Maximum Power Transfer (10%)

Hakmilik Fakulti Kejuruteraan Elektrik, Universiti Teknologi MARA (Terengganu)


2.1 Dependent & Independent
Source ( 1 )

An ideal voltage/current source is a circuit element where the


voltage/current across it is independent of the current/voltage through it
If the voltage/current across an ideal voltage/current source can be
specified independently of any other variable in a circuit, it is called an
independent voltage/current source
Conversely, if the voltage/current across an ideal voltage source is
determined by some other voltage or current in a circuit, it is called a
dependent or controlled voltage/current source

Hakmilik Fakulti Kejuruteraan Elektrik, Universiti Teknologi MARA (Terengganu)


2.1 Dependent & Independent
Source ( 2 )
Dependent sources
A dependent source is a current source or voltage source that depends
on the voltage or current on another element in the circuit. When a
dependent source is contained within an essential mesh, the dependent
source should be treated like a normal source. After the mesh equation
is formed, a dependent source equation is needed. This is an equation
that relates the dependent sources variable to the voltage or current that
the source depends on in the circuit.

Hakmilik Fakulti Kejuruteraan Elektrik, Universiti Teknologi MARA (Terengganu)


2.1 Dependent & Independent
Source ( 3 )

Hakmilik Fakulti Kejuruteraan Elektrik, Universiti Teknologi MARA (Terengganu)


2.2 Mesh Analysis ( 1 )
Mesh analysis is a method that is used to solve planar
circuits for the voltage and current at any place in the circuit.
Planar circuits are circuits that can be drawn on a plane
with no wires overlapping each other.
Mesh analysis uses Kirchoffs Voltage Law to solve these
planar circuits.
The advantage of using mesh analysis is that it creates a
systematic approach to solving planar circuits and eliminates
the number of equations needed to solve the circuit for all of
the voltages and currents.

Hakmilik Fakulti Kejuruteraan Elektrik, Universiti Teknologi MARA (Terengganu)


2.2 Mesh Analysis ( 2 )
Step for Mesh analysis

Mesh a loop that does not contain an inner loop.

1. Count the number of window panes in the circuit. Assign


a mesh current to each window pane.

2. Write a KVL equation for every mesh whose current is


unknown.

3. Solve the resulting equations

Hakmilik Fakulti Kejuruteraan Elektrik, Universiti Teknologi MARA (Terengganu)


2.2 Mesh Analysis ( 3 )
Example 1
Find Io in the following figure using mesh analysis.

Answer:

Hakmilik Fakulti Kejuruteraan Elektrik, Universiti Teknologi MARA (Terengganu)


2.2 Mesh Analysis ( 4 )-Supermesh
A supermesh occurs when a current source is contained between two
essential meshes. To handle the supermesh, first treat the circuit as if
the current source is not there. This leads to one equation that
incorporates two mesh currents. Once this equation is formed, an
equation is needed that relates the two mesh currents with the current
source. This will be an equation where the current source is equal to one
of the mesh currents minus the other. The following is a simple example
of dealing with a supermesh.

Hakmilik Fakulti Kejuruteraan Elektrik, Universiti Teknologi MARA (Terengganu)


2.3 Nodal Analysis ( 1 )

Nodal analysis is a method of determining the voltage


(potential difference) between nodes" (points where
elements or branches connect) in an electric circuit
To solve for the voltages and currents at any point in a
circuit without working through many individual KCL or KVL
rules.
This method is very powerful as many different circuit
elements can be modeled

Hakmilik Fakulti Kejuruteraan Elektrik, Universiti Teknologi MARA (Terengganu)


2.3 Nodal Analysis ( 2 )

Step for Nodal analysis

1. Label all nodes in the circuit. Arbitrarily select any node as


reference.
2. Define a voltage variable from every remaining node to the
reference. These voltage variables must be defined as
voltage rises with respect to the reference node.
3. Write a KCL equation for every node except the reference.
4. Solve the resulting system of equations.

Hakmilik Fakulti Kejuruteraan Elektrik, Universiti Teknologi MARA (Terengganu)


2.3 Nodal Analysis ( 3 )
Example 2
Using nodal analysis, find v1 and v2 in the circuit of figure
below.

Answer:

Hakmilik Fakulti Kejuruteraan Elektrik, Universiti Teknologi MARA (Terengganu)


2.3 Nodal Analysis ( 4 )- Supernode

In circuit theory, a supernode is a theoretical construct


that can be used to solve a circuit. This is done by viewing
a voltage source on a wire as a point source voltage in
relation to other point voltages located at various nodes in
the circuit, relative to a ground node assigned a zero
charge.

Hakmilik Fakulti Kejuruteraan Elektrik, Universiti Teknologi MARA (Terengganu)


2.4 Superposition Theorem ( 1 )
When a circuit has sources operating at different
frequencies,
The separate phasor circuit for each frequency must
be solved independently, and
The total response is the sum of time-domain
responses of all the individual phasor circuits.

Hakmilik Fakulti Kejuruteraan Elektrik, Universiti Teknologi MARA (Terengganu)


2.4 Superposition Theorem ( 2 )
The superposition theorem for electric circuit states that
the total current in any branch of a bilateral linear circuit
equals the algebraic sum of the currents produced by each
source acting separately throughout the circuit.

To ascertain the contribution of each individual source, all of


the other sources first must be "killed" (set to zero) by:
Replacing all other voltage sources with a short circuit
(thereby eliminating difference of potential. V=0)
Replacing all other current sources with an open circuit
(thereby eliminating current. I=0)

Hakmilik Fakulti Kejuruteraan Elektrik, Universiti Teknologi MARA (Terengganu)


2.4 Superposition Theorem ( 3 )
Example 3
Calculate vo in the circuit of figure shown below using the
superposition theorem.

Hakmilik Fakulti Kejuruteraan Elektrik, Universiti Teknologi MARA (Terengganu)


2.5 Source Transformation ( 1 )

Finding a solution to a circuit can be somewhat difficult


without using tricks or methods that make the circuit appear
simpler. Circuit solutions are often simplified, especially
with mixed sources, by transforming a voltage into a
current source, and vice versa.This process is known as a
source transformation, and is an application of
Thevenins theorem and Nortons theorem.

Hakmilik Fakulti Kejuruteraan Elektrik, Universiti Teknologi MARA (Terengganu)


2.5 Source Transformation ( 2 )

Source transformations are easy to perform as long as there is a


familiarity with Ohms Law.
Basically, if there is a voltage source in series with an impedance, it is
possible to find the value of the equivalent current source in parallel with
the impedance by dividing the value of the voltage source by the value of
the impedance.
Initially, if a current source in parallel with an impedance is present,
multiplying the value of the current source with the value of the impedance
will result in the equivalent voltage source in series with the impedance
The converse also applies here.

Hakmilik Fakulti Kejuruteraan Elektrik, Universiti Teknologi MARA (Terengganu)


2.5 Source Transformation ( 3 )

Hakmilik Fakulti Kejuruteraan Elektrik, Universiti Teknologi MARA (Terengganu)


2.5 Source Transformation ( 4 )
Example 4
Find Io in the circuit of figure below using the
concept of source transformation.

Hakmilik Fakulti Kejuruteraan Elektrik, Universiti Teknologi MARA (Terengganu)


2.6 Thevenin & Norton Theorem ( 1 )

In electrical circuit theory, Thvenin's theorem for linear


electrical networks states that any combination of voltage
sources, current sources and resistors with two terminals is
electrically equivalent to a single voltage source V and a
single series resistor R. For single frequency AC systems
the theorem can also be applied to general impedance, not
just resistors.

Hakmilik Fakulti Kejuruteraan Elektrik, Universiti Teknologi MARA (Terengganu)


2.6 Thevenin & Norton Theorem ( 2 )

Calculating the Thvenin equivalent


To calculate the equivalent circuit, one needs a resistance and
some voltage - two unknowns. And so, one needs two
equations. These two equations are usually obtained by using
the following steps, but any conditions one places on the
terminals of the circuit should also work:
Calculate the output voltage, VAB, when in open circuit condition (no
load resistor - meaning infinite resistance). This is VTh.
Calculate the output current, IAB, when those loads are short circuited
(load resistance is 0). RTh equals VTh divided by this IAB.
The equivalent circuit is a voltage source with voltage VTh in series with
a resistance RTh.

Hakmilik Fakulti Kejuruteraan Elektrik, Universiti Teknologi MARA (Terengganu)


2.6 Thevenin & Norton Theorem ( 3 )

Norton's theorem for electrical networks states that any collection of


voltage sources, current sources, and resistors with two terminals is
electrically equivalent to an ideal current source, I, in parallel with a single
resistor, R. For single-frequency AC systems the theorem can also be
applied to general impedance, not just resistors. The Norton equivalent
is used to represent any network of linear sources and impedances, at a
given frequency. The circuit consists of an ideal current source in parallel
with an ideal impedance (or resistor for non-reactive circuits).

Hakmilik Fakulti Kejuruteraan Elektrik, Universiti Teknologi MARA (Terengganu)


2.6 Thevenin & Norton Theorem ( 4 )

Calculation of a Norton equivalent circuit

Calculate the output current, IAB, when a short circuit is the


load (meaning 0 resistance between A and B). This is INo.

Calculate the output voltage, VAB, when in open circuit


condition (no load resistor - meaning infinite resistance). RNo
equals this VAB divided by INo.

The equivalent circuit is a current source with current INo,


in parallel with a resistance RNo.

Hakmilik Fakulti Kejuruteraan Elektrik, Universiti Teknologi MARA (Terengganu)


2.6 Thevenin & Norton Theorem ( 5 )

Thevenin transform

Norton transform

Hakmilik Fakulti Kejuruteraan Elektrik, Universiti Teknologi MARA (Terengganu)


2.6 Thevenin & Norton Theorem ( 6 )

Example 5

Find the Thevenin equivalent at terminals ab of


the circuit below.

Zth =12.4 j3.2 VTH =

Hakmilik Fakulti Kejuruteraan Elektrik, Universiti Teknologi MARA (Terengganu)


2.7 Maximum Power Transfer

Maximum power is transferred to the load


whenever the load resistance is equal with the
Thevenin resistance ( ZTH=ZL).
2
TH
=
4

Hakmilik Fakulti Kejuruteraan Elektrik, Universiti Teknologi MARA (Terengganu)


Prepared by:
1. Mohd Zamri Jusoh, Lecturer, FKE,UiTM Terengganu. 2013

Updated by:
1. Engr. Dr. Mohd Zamri Jusoh, Senior Lecturer, FKE, UiTM Terengganu. May 2014

References
Fundamentals of Electric Circuits 5TH Edition C.K.Alexander M.N.O.Sadiku, McGraw-Hill International Edition
Intermediate Circuit Analysis Second Edition Ahmad Asari Sulaiman, Norhayati Hamzah Prentice Hall

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