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P15ME562
UNIT I
COOLING AND LUBRICATION SYSTEMS
Functions of lubrication
Mechanism of Lubrication
Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication
Journal Bearing Lubrication
Stable Lubrication
Lubrication System:
1) Mist Lubrication
Where,
Cd = coefficient of discharge for the orifice
Pinj = fuel pressure at the inlet to injector, N/m2
Pcyl = Pressure of charge inside the cylinder, N/m2
Pf = fuel density, kg/m3
Larger droplets provide a higher penetration into the
chamber but smaller droplets are required for quick
mixing and evaporation of the fuel.
The diameter of most of the droplets in the fuel spray is
lesser than 5microns.
The droplets sizes depends on various factors which are
listed below,
Mean droplet size decreases with increase in injection
pressure.
Mean droplets size decreases with increase in air density.
Mean droplets size increases with fuel viscosity.
Size of droplets increases with increase in the size of the
orifice
Quantity Of Fuel And The Size Of Nozzle Orifice
The quantity of the fuel injected per cycle depends to a
great extent upon the power output of the engine.
As already the fuel is supplied into the combustion
chamber through the nozzle holes and the velocity of the
fuel for good atomization is of the order of 400m/s.
The velocity of the fuel through nozzle orifice in terms of
h can be given by,
Where Ni for the four stroke engine is rpm/2 and for a two
stroke engine Ni is rpm itself and d is the diameter of one
of the orifice in m,
n is the number of orifices,
is the duration of injection in crank angle degrees and
Ni is the number of injections per minute.
Usually the rate of fuel-injection is expressed in
mm3/degree crank angle/liter cylinder displacement
volume to normalize the effect of engine size.
The rate of fuel injected/degree of crankshaft rotation is a
function of injector camshaft velocity, the diameter of the
injector plunger.
And flow air of injection for a given fuel input and
subsequently introduces a change in injection timing.
A higher rate of injection may permit injection timing to
be retarded from optimum value this helps in injection
rate requires increased injection pressure and increases
the load on the push rod and the cam.
This may affect the durability of the engine
Electronic Injection Systems
In a carburetor engine, uniformity of mixture strength is
difficult to realize in each cylinder of a multi cylinder engine.
As may be noticed that the intake manifold of a multi
cylinder engine. As may be noticed that the intake valve is
open in cylinder 2.
As can also be observed the gasoline (a volatile flammable
liquid hydrocarbon mixture used as a fuel especially for
internal combustion engines and usually blended from several
products of natural gas and petroleum) moves to the end of
the manifold and accumulates there.
This enriches the mixture going to the end cylinders.
However, the central cylinders, which are very close to the
carburetor, get the leanest mixture. Thus the various cylinders
receive the air-gasoline mixture in varying qualities and
richness.
This problem is called the mal distribution and can be
solved by the port injection system by having the same
amount of gasoline injected at each intake manifold.
Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop injection
systems for gasoline engines.
By adopting gasoline injection each cylinder can get the
same richness of the air-gasoline mixture and the mal
distribution can be avoided to a great extent.
.
Reasons for having gasoline injection system, instead of a
carburetion
To have uniform distribution of fuel in a multi cylinder
engine.
To improve breathing capacity i.e. volumetric efficiency
To reduce or eliminate detonation.
To prevent fuel loss during scavenging in case of two-
stroke engines
.
Fuel injection system can be classified as:
(I) Gasoline direct injection into the cylinder (GDI)
(II) Port injection
(a) Timed and (b) Continuous
(III) Manifold injection
Clutch
DEFINITION
Clutch is a mechanism which enables the rotary motion
of one shaft to be transmitted, when desired, a second
shaft the axis of which is coincident with that of the first.
REQUIREMENT OF CLUTCH
1) Torque transmission: The clutch should be able to
transmit the maximum torque of the engine under all
conditions.
It is usually designed to transmit 125 to 150 percent of
the maximum engine torque.
The clutch slips during engagement, the clutch facing is
heated.
Clutch temperature is the major factor limiting the clutch
capacity
This requires that the clutch facing must maintain
A reasonable coefficient of friction with the mating
surfaces under all working conditions.
Moreover the friction material should not such at high
temperatures and clamping loads.
2. Gradual engagement: The clutch should positively take
the drive gradually without the occurrence sudden jerks.
3. Heat dissipation: During clutch application, large
amounts of heat are generated.
The rubbing faces should have sufficient area and mass to
absorb the heat generated.
The proper design of the clutch should ensure proper
ventilation or cooling for adequate dissipation of the heat.
4. Dynamic balancing: This is necessary
particularly in the high speed clutches.
1. Cone clutch
In this type the contact surfaces are in the form of
cones.
In the engaged position the male cone is fully inside the
female cone so that the friction surface are in complete
contact.
This is done by means of springs which keeps the male
cone pressed all the time.
When the clutch is engaged, the torque is transmitted
from the engine via fly wheel and the male cone to the
splined gear box shaft
For disengaging the clutch the male cone is pulled out by
means of the lever system operated through the clutch
pedal thereby separating the contact surfaces
Advantage
The only advantage is the cone clutch is that the normal
force acting on the contact surfaces in this case is larger
than the axial force, as compared to the simple single
plate clutch in which the normal force acting on the
contact surfaces is equal to axial force.
Disadvantages
This type of clutch is practically obsolete
If the angle of cone is made smaller than about 20 degree
the male cone tends to bend or join the female cone and it
becomes difficult to disengage the clutch.
A small amount of wear on the cone surface results in a
considerable amount of the axial movement of the male
cone for which it will be difficult to allow.
Single plate clutch
Friction plate is held between the flywheel and pressure
plate.
There are springs arranged circumferentially, which are
provided axial force to keep clutch in engaged position.
The friction plate is mounted on the hub which is splined
from inside and is thus free over the gear box shaft.
Friction facing is attached on the friction plate on both sides
to provide two annular friction surfaces for the transmission
of power.
It is the most common type of clutch used in motor vehicles.
The clutch essentially consists of two members, one
mounted on the driving shaft and the other on the driven
shaft.
These two shafts are parallel and concentric with each other.
One shaft is fixed to its housing while the other is splined so
that it can be moved axially.
The driving torque can be increased by increasing the
effective radius of contact.
In actual practice the construction of the clutch differs.
The pressure plate, the springs. the release levers and the
cover.
Single Plate Clutch
Advantage
With the single plate clutch gear changing is easier than
with the cone clutch because the pedal movement is less in
this case.
It does not form disadvantages of cone clutch.
Disadvantages
As compared to cone clutch the spring have to be more stiff
and this means greater force required to be applied by driver
while disengaging.
The single plate clutch is used in various vehicle is
manufactured in India as shown in fig.
Diaphragm spring type single plate clutch
Drag
If appreciable drag is experienced in the fly wheel when
the engine is idling it may be only due to wrong grade of
fluid
Vibration
The vibration in the fluid flywheel may be caused due to
upsetting of the balance of the rotor the un-balancing may
be due to reasons such as nut being changed on the
UNIT IV
GEAR BOX
TRANSMISSION - I
INTRODUCTION
The word transmission' means as the whole of the
mechanism that transmits the power from the engine
crankshaft to the rear wheels.
However the transmission is also being used very
commonly in the literature for a mechanism which
provides us with suitable variation of the engine torque at
the road wheels whenever required.
This may be a gear box (also called manual transmission)
or an automatic transmission.
It is in this sense that the word transmission is used in this
chapter.
FUNCTIONS OF TRANSMISSION
1. At low speed, the torque produced by an I.C. engine is
very small, which increases with increase of speed, peaks
at some optimum speed and starts decreasing beyond that.
This would mean that:
(i) If engine is directly connected to road wheels, it may not
have enough tractive effort to start the vehicle from rest.
(ii) The practical considerations for the running of
automobile under different conditions demands a large
variation of torque at the road wheels, which would mean
that it would not to be possible to always run the engine
at the optimum speed. Besides, the bigger engine would
be required to cater to the torque requirement under most
difficult conditions.
Thus the main purpose of the transmission is to provide a
means to vary the leverage or torque ratio between the
engine and the road wheels as required. This has been
made clear in the following article.
2. The transmission also provides a neutral position so that
the engine and the road wheels are disconnected even
with the clutch to the engaged position.
3. A means to back the car by reversing the direction of
rotation of the drive is also provided by the transmission.
NECESSITY OF TRANSMTSSION
The question as to how far is the transmission necessary in
a vehicle may be answered by considering:
(a) Variation of resistance to the vehicle motion at various
speeds.
(b) Variation of tractive effort of the vehicle available at
various speeds
1. Total Resistance to the vehicle motion
It consists of:
(i) Resistance due to wind-This is taken to be proportional
to the square of the vehicle speed.
(ii) Resistance due to gradient-This remains constant at all
speeds. This is the component of the vehicle weight
parallel to the plane of the road.
(iii) Miscellaneous-Apart from the above two types, various
other factors also contribute towards the vehicles
resistance. These are type of the road, tyre friction etc.
This may also be taken approximately to remain constant
with the speed.
DRIVE TO WHEELS
DRIVE LINE
It is the group of parts connecting the transmission with
the driving wheels
It consist of the drive shaft (also called propeller shaft),
universal joint, constant velocity joint and the half shaft.
Propeller Shaft
This is the shaft which transmits the drive from the
transmission to the bevel pinion or worm of final drive in
front engine, rear drive vehicles and from the transfer
box to the front and rear axles in all wheel drive vehicle.
It is called drive shaft and consist of mainly three parts
1. Shaft: this has to withstand torsional load, made of
tubular c/s. It has to be well balanced to avoid whirling at
high speeds. Are made of aluminium, steel or composite
materials
2. One or two universal joints, depending upon the type of
rear axle drive used. The universal joints account for up
and down movements of the rear axle when the vehicle is
running
3. Slip joint, depending upon one slip joint may be there in
the shaft. This serves the length of the propeller shaft
when demanded by the rear axle movement.
Figure shows a propeller shaft with two universal joints
at the ends and a slip or sliding joint
Slip joint is formed by the internal splines on the sleeve
attached to the left universal joint and external splines on
the propeller shaft.
In vehicles with large wheel base, the long propeller shaft
would be tend to sag and whirl.
Whirl is like the action of a rope that is in an arc while
held at both ends.
At certain speed whirl becomes critical and shaft vibrates
violently.
This also sets up symphathic resonant vibration in the
vehicle body.
Critical whirling speed of a shaft can be increased by
increasing its diameter, but that would increase its inertia
which would decrease its acceleration and deceleration.
Critical whirling speed is also found to decrease as the
square of its length.
Thus decreasing the length to half would increase the
critical speed four times.
Another method to decrease the shaft length is to use
divided propeller shaft, supported by intermediate
bearings.
Other advantages of such arrangement are the lower floor
height and possibility of achieving large offsets between
transmission centre line and the final drive pinion centre
line in commercial vehicles in two or more stages.
HALF SHAFT
Either one of the two shafts connecting the differential
(front or rear) to the road wheels through which power is
transmitted in a live axle, is called half shaft.
It normally transmits half of the available power from the
differential to the wheel to which it is connected.
Each half shaft user a CV (constant velocity) joint at both
the inboard (differential) and outboard (wheel) end.
The inboard joint is a plugging (sliding) joint which
accommodates movement of the engine and suspension.
The outboard joint is typically a fixed joint with higher
angle capability to match wheel running angles.
Universal Joint
A universal joint is a particular type of connection
between two shafts, whose axis are inclined to each other
The most simple type of universal joint is Hooks joint
which is most widely used because of the fact that it is
simple and compact in construction and reasonably
efficient at small angles of propeller shaft movement up
and down, say 18 degree
The axis of the shaft A and B are intersecting
Each of these shaft contains a yoke
The cross C has four arms.
The two opposite arms of the cross are supported in
bushes in the yoke of a shaft A, while the other two arms
of the cross are supported in the yoke of shaft B
Thus shaft A can have angular rotation about axis XX
and the shaft B, about the axis YY
It is thus seen that it will be possible with the Hooks
joint for the shaft A and B to have positive drive while
allowing angular movement between them.
An improvement form of the Hooks joint uses needle
roller bearing to support the cross in the yoke
This results in increase of joint efficiency
A perfect circle U joint which has a special feature in
that bearing races on the inside arc crowned, which
minimises galling and flaking by disturbing load evenly.
In Flexible ring universal joint each shaft carries a three
arm spider on splines
There are six hole in the flexible ring which is made of
reinforced rubberised fabric
Each of the spiders is fixed to each side of the ring by
means of bolts and nuts.
This type of joint is thus very simple in construction and
hence cheap
There is also no need for lubrication of the joint
It also provides small axial movement
The only disadvantage is that it cant operate at large
angular deflections.
The universal joints have one common defect
In all these joints, the speed of the driven shaft does not
remain uniform.
Depending upon the angle of inclination of the shaft, the
driven shaft speed undergoes cyclic variation as shown.
This variation is zero for zero angle of inclination, but its
magnitude becomes considerable when the angle is large.
One method to achieve a uniform driven shaft speed is by
using two such joints as shown.
The intermediate shaft is so arranged that it makes equal
angles theta with the first and third shafts.
The variation caused by one joint is then cancelled out by
the second joint
This will be valid only when the angles on both joints are
exactly equal. Which is not always the case in practice.
In the front wheel, the engine torque has to be transmitted
through members that rise and fall due to road shocks and
also turn from side to side while steering the vehicle.
More over the shafts must be able to slide in and out as
large operating angles are involved, the shaft being
smaller length
Basically there are two types of constant velocity joints
The fixed type and the plunging type.
The fixed type or the outboard type joint is employed on
the wheel end of the drive shaft while the plunging type
or the inboard type is used on the different end of the
drive shaft.
The first rear constant velocity joint, still use is the
Rzeppa joint, another one developed in France was tripod
joint.
Rear Axle Drives
In all the drives employed for the rear axle the springs
take the weight of the body.
Many drives are used, out of which are the two important
ones are the Hotchkiss drive and Torque-tube drive.
Hotchkiss Drive
This is the simplest and most widely used type of rear
axle drive.
In this case the springs besides taking weight of the
body, also take the torque reaction, driving thrust and the
side thrust. Fig. 6.47 shows such a drive.
The propeller shaft is provided with two universal joints
and a sliding joint.
The spring is fixed rigidly in the middle, to the rear axle.
The front end of the spring is rigidly fixed on the frame,
while the rear end is supported in a shackle.
The driving thrust is transmitted to the frame by the front
half of the springs.
Due to the torque reaction, the spring deflects as shown
in the Fig. 6.48.
Thus torque reaction is taken up by the springs.
Similarly, to take up the braking torque the springs
would deflect in the opposite direction.
When the springs deflect in the manner as shown, the
bevel pinion shaft also changes its position.
Therefore, if there is only one universal joint at the front
end of the propeller shaft will bend under this condition
Again when the rear axle moves up and down, it has to
move in a circle with the front spring support at the frame
as centre.
But the propeller shaft motion, the centre is at the front
universal joint.
This means that during this movement of the rear axle,
the length of the propeller shaft has to vary.
This is provided for by means of a sliding joint in the
propeller shaft.
Torque Tube Drive
In this type of drive, the spring takes only the side thrust
besides supporting the body weight.
The torque reaction, braking torque and the driving
thrust are taken by another member which is called the
torque tube.
One end of the torque tube is attached to the axle casing,
while the other end which is spherical in shape fits in the
cup fixed to the frame as shown in the Fig. 6.49.
As is seen the torque tube encloses the propeller shaft.
Since in this case the torque tube takes the torque
reaction, the centre line of the bevel pinion shaft will not
shift further,
it will always pass through the centre of the spherical cup
if the propeller is connected to the gear box shaft by
means of universal joint situated exactly at the centre of
the spherical cup.
In such situation, no universal joint is needed at the rear
end of the propeller shaft.
And no sliding joint is provided because both the pinion
shaft and the propeller shaft in this case will move about
the same centre i.e, about the centre of the spherical cup.
Clearly torque reaction and the driving thrust are taken
by torque tube
Note In both the types of the drives, the side thrust is
taken by the leaf springs.
If, however, coil springs are used, they are not able to
take side loads and therefore, a separate member is
employed in that case.
Such a member is usually in the form of a transverse
radius rod fixed approximately parallel to wheel axis,
with one end pivoted to the axle casing and the other to
the chassis frame.
Such rods are usually called Panhand rods (Fig 6.46)
BRAKES
PRINCIPLE
TL = B PL Rf