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PAo y A /x A y A /x A y A (1-x A )
= o= = =
PB y B /x B (1-y A )/(1-x A ) x A (1-y A )
x A - x A y A = y A - y A x A
x A = (x A - x A +1) y A
x A = [( - 1) x A +1] y A
xA
yA = ------ (equilibrium relation)
[( - 1) x A +1]
For multi-component system:-
xF
F dx
Ln
W
= x (y-x) --------(1)
W
There are two methods to solve equation (1):-
First method:- (by integration)
x
y= ----- (equilibrium relation)
( - 1) x+1
xF
F dx
Ln
W
= x (y-x) -------- (1)
W
xF
F dx
Ln
W
= x x
W ( - x)
( - 1) x+1
1 x F (1 - x W ) 1- x W
= Ln + Ln
-1 x W (1 - x F ) 1- x F
After performing the integration assume xw,
(usually xw unknown) .
If left hand side=right hand side your assumption
is correct if not repeat your assumption.
F
Ln = Area under the curve (note x W is unknown)
W
Steps for calculation the correct xw:-
1-plot x-y diagram.
2- assume xw.
3-costruct the previous table between x and
1/(y*- x).
4 - plot x vs 1/(y*- x) as shown in the last figure.
5- calculate the area under the curve = Ln F/W.
6- if area = Ln F/W , your assumption of xw is correct
if not reassume xw.
7- finally calculate the correct xw.
Equation(1) can be used to
determine (xw) if (F, xF , D)
are known.
Also the average distillate
composition can be
Calculated ( yD ) by simple
material balance:-
F = D + W --------(2)
F xF = D yD + W xW -------(3)
By solving the three
equations all the quantities
and compositions can be
calculated.
2-Flash (equilibrium) distillation:-
A single-stage continuous operation where a liquid mixture is
partially vaporized, then flows through a pressure reducing valve
to the separator. In the separator, separation between the vapor
and liquid takes place. How much of A is produced in the vapor
(and remained in the liquid) depends on the condition of the
Feed, (see Figure(13)).
Vapor amount (V) with composition (y), and a liquid amount (L)
with composition (x) are produced.
The two streams leaving the flash drum (y and x )are in
equilibrium with each others.
Pio
if x Fi = 1 your assumption is correct
PT
if not repeat your assumption
B- Dew point :-
yi
xi = (for the first liquid droplet x i = x Fi )
ki
yi
xi = 1 = ki
given, x Fi , P assume Tdew and calculate k i
yA yB
xi = 1 = o
+
PA PBo
( ) ( )
PT PT
yi
if ki
= 1 your assumption is correct
PT = PW + PC (at boiling)
At boiling:-
PC moles of materials n C
= =
PW moles of water nW
PC PC y .P moles of (c)
C T
PW PT PC y W . PT moles of (w)
PC MC moles of (c) M C mass of (c)
=
PT - PC MW moles of (w) M W mass of (w)
mass of (w) = mass of steam used as a carrier.
Total amount of steam used = Steam used for heating {m c cpc (Tb mix -Tinital )
+ Steam used as a carrier = (mass of (w)) = m steam steam }
+ Steam used for vaporization m steam steam mc c
Advantage of steam distillation:-
1-Distillation takes place under low temperature.
2-Prevent decomposition of thermally sensitive
materials.
3- Cheap and economic.
4-Avalability of heating medium.
Fractional Distillation or Differential Counter-Current
Vapor/ Liquid Operations (Multi-stage Distillation):-
To obtain high purity use multi-stage arrangement
yD = KD x0
and yD = xD
CMB
Vn+1 y n+1 = L n x n + D x D --(12)
HB
Vn+1 H n+1 = L n h n + D h D QC ---(13)
Where:-
H n+1 = f (y n+1 ) and h n = f (x n )
For bottom section:-
OMB
L'm+1 = V'm + W ---(14)
CMB
L'm+1 x'm+1 = V'm y'm + W x w ---(15)
HB
L'm+1 h'm+1 + Q r = V'm H'm + W h W ----(16)
Where:-
h'm+1 = f (x'm+1 )
H'm = f (y'm )
Top or rectifying section ( total condenser conditions):-
First plate ( n = 1 )
V2 = L1 + D ---(OMB)
V2 y 2 = L1 x1 + D x D ---(CMB)
V2 H 2 = L1 h1 + D h D QC ---(HB)
where:- y1 k1x1 --- (Eq.relation)
Calculation steps :-
1-Assume V2 then get L1 from
(OMB) equation.
2- Calculate y2 after calculating
x1 ( from Eq.relation y1 = k1 x1 )
3- If LHS = RHS (in HB equation) your
assumption is correct if not repeat your assumption.
Second plate ( n = 2 )
V3 = L 2 + D ---(OMB)
V3 y3 = L 2 x 2 + D x D ---(CMB)
V3 H 3 = L 2 h 2 + D h D QC ---(HB)
where:- y 2 k 2 x 2 --- (Eq.relation)
same previous steps for calculation V3 and L 2
then calculation of y3 , then checking your assumption
from heat balance equation.
Repeat your calculations till you reach
x n = x f or x n x f
then calculate the number of stages in the upper section
Bottom section (Using partial vaporizer = Reboiler ):-
Reboiler acts as one
theoretical stage outside
the distillation column.
The two streams leaving it
are in equilibrium with
each other:-
yr = kr xw
For Reboiler (m = 0 )
L'1 = V'r + W ---(OMB)
L'1 x'1 = V'r y'r + W x w ---(CMB)
L'1 h'1 + Q r = V'r H'r + W h W ---(HB)
Steps for calculations:-
1-Assume Vr then get L1 from(OMB) equation.
2- Calculate x1 after calculating yr
( from Eq.relation yr = kr xw )
3-Substituting by Vr , Hr , L1 , h1
in the (HB) equation.
(after calculating the correct
temperature inside the reboiler)
4- If LHS = RHS
your assumption is correct if not repeat
your assumption.
First plate 1' from the bottom (m = 1 )
L'2 = V'1 + W ---(OMB)
L'2 x'2 = V'1 y'1 + W x w ---(CMB)
L'2 h'2 + Q r = V'1 H'1 + W h W ---(HB)
Where : y'2 = k'2 x 2
L D
y n+1 = xn + x D -----( 30)
V V
Also,
L D
V = L + D y n+1 = xn + xD
L+ D L+ D
L/D D/D
y n+1 = xn + xD
L/D + D/D L/D + D/D
R 1
y n+1 = xn + x D -----( 31)
R+1 R+1
First plate ( n = 1 )
V = L + D ---(OMB)
V y2 = L x1 + D x D ---(CMB)
L D
y2 = x1 + xD
V V
y1 k1x1 --- (Eq.re. at certain T )
Calculation steps:-
1-For total condenser y1 = xD = x0 , calculate x1 from the
Eq. re. y1 = K1 x1 at certain assumed temperature for
the top plate.
2-Substitute in equation (30) or (31) then calculate y2
(notice that the trails only on temperature not on the
amount as in Sorel method).
3-After calculating the correct y2 , calculate y3 from:-
n=2
L D
y3 = x2 + xD & y3 = k 3 x 3
V V
calculation steps:-
1- By assuming the temperature inside the reboiler ,the
composition yr is calculated.
2- Calculate x1 from eq.(32) , for m = 0
First plate inside the column , m =1
y'1 = k1 x1
L' W
y'1 = x'2 xw
V' V'
3- calculate y1 from the equilibrium relation, then
calculate x2
4- Continue your calculation and so on till you reach
ym xF .
4- Mc-Cabe Thiele Method (graphical representation of
Lewis method):-
To obtain the number of
theoretical trays using the
McCabe-Thiele method,
we shall divide the column
into 3 sections: rectifying,
feed and stripping sections.
As these sections are then
represented on the (x-y)
equilibrium curve for the
binary mixture in question
and re-combined to make a
complete design, as shown
in Figure (49).
1- Top section:-
V = L + D ---(OMB)
V y n+1 = L x n + D x D ---(CMB)
( L + D ) y n+1 = L x n + D x D
The point of intersection between this operating line equation
and 45 line (x = y) is:-
( L + D ) y = L y + D xD
L y + D y = L y + D xD
D y D xD y = x = xD
the point of intersection between top operating line
and 45 line is (x D , x D )
The top operating line is drawn from its upper end at
y1 = x0 = xD (on the 45o line), with a slope L/V = R/R+1
and an
intercept =(xD /R+1)
with y-axis constant
for given R and
purity of
distillate xD .
2- Bottom section:-
V' = L' - W ---(OMB)
V' y'm = L' x'm1 - W x w ---(CMB)
( L' W ) y'm = L' x'm+1 - W x w
The point of intersection between this operating line equation
and 45 line (x = y) is:-
( L' W ) y' = L' y' W x w
L' y' W y' = L' y' W x w
W y' = W x w y' = x' = x w
the point of intersection between top operating line
and 45 line is (x w ,x w )
The bottom operating line is
drawn from its lower end
at (xw , xw )
(on the 45o line)
with a slope L/V
and an intercept
= - W xw/ V
with y-axis .
3-Feed stage consideration:-
By solving the two operating
line equations (top and
Bottom) at the point
of intersection (xi , yi)
( V yi = L x i + D x D ) (Top)
+ (V' yi = L' x i W x w ) (Bottom)
(V' V) yi = (L' L) x i (D x D +Wx W )
(V' V) yi = (L' L) x i F x F
(V' V) (L' L)
yi = x i x F ----(33)
F F
q- line definition:-
Material balance on feed entrance:-
F + L + V' = V + L'
F + ( V' V) = ( L' L)
( V' V) ( L' L)
1+ = =q
F F
( L' L) ( V' V)
q & q 1 =
F F
By substitution in equation (33) with these values:-
q xF
yi = xi -----(34)
q 1 q 1
q
It is the q line equation , it's slope
q 1
Heat balance on feed entrance:-
F h F + L h L + V' H'V = V H V + L' h'L
considering h L h'L & H V H'V
F h F + ( V' - V) H V = ( L'- L) h L
( V' - V) ( L'- L)
hF + HV = hL
F F
( L'- L) ( V' - V)
q & q -1 =
F F
h F + ( q - 1) H V = q h L
HV - h F
h F + q HV - HV = q h L q= ----(35)
HV - h L
amount of heat necessary to vaporize one mole of the feed
q =
latent heat of vaporization
For different feed conditions, q has the following
numerical limits :-
1 Saturated liquid feed:- L V
F
hF = hL
HV h F
q=
HV h L bubble point
HV h L
liquid feed
q= = =1
HV h L
q line:-
q 1
q 1 1 1
q-line is a vertical line
2Saturated vapor feed:- L V
F
hF = hV
HV h V
q=
HV h L
dew point
HV h V vapour feed
q= =0
HV h L
q line:-
q 0
0
q 1 0 1
q-line is a horizontal line
3 Partial vaporized feed:- L V
0<q< 1 F
e.g q = 0.7
q line:-
q 0.7 0.7 partially vaporized
= ve feed
q 1 0.7 1 0.3
q-line has a -ve slope
4Subcooled feed:- L V
hF < hV F
HV h V
q=
HV h L
m cp T + subcooled
liquid feed
= >1
q line:- ( assume q = 1.5 )
q 1.5 +ve
q 1 1.5 1 +ve
line in the first quarter
5 Superheated feed:- L V
h F > HV
HV h F ve
q= = = ve
HV h L +ve superheated
vapour feed
q line:-
q ve ve
q 1 ve 1 ve
q-line in the third quarter
Number of theoretical stages using Mc-Cabe Thiele
Method
The number of theoretical
stages required for a given
separation is then the
number of triangles that
can be drawn between
these operating lines and
the equilibrium curve.
The last triangle on the
diagram represents the reboiler.
Some cases in Mc-Cabe Thiele method:-
(1) Calculation of no. of stages in complex feed( more
than one feed):-
For first feed:-
L' L
q1 get L' assume sat.liq.
F1
L
V = L + D get R =
D
D is calculated from (OMB)
calculate L & V .
q1 known , F1 known
caculate L'.
V' V
q1 1 get V'
F1
For second feed:-
L" L'
q2 get L"
F2
assume vap.liq.
V" V'
q2 1 get V"
F2
1- Simple 1- Complex
F = D + W ------(2)
Fx F = D x D + W x w -----(3)
With the help of equation (1), (2) and (3), the quantity of
top product (D) and its average composition (xD) at the
end of operation for a given F , xF , R , xw and N can be
calculated as follows:-
1-Draw the operating line from equation(31) starting at
point xF ,then locate the given number of stages.
2- By shifting this line up and down, the
2-Select an arbitrary xD value (more than xF) and draw
the operating line from this xD value and starting at this
point locate the given number of stages and then read
The corresponding
(x ) value. Repeat this
step by shifting this
line up and down until
reaching or exceeding
the given xw as shown in
the opposite Figure.
3- By plotting x values, 1/(xD-x) as shown in Figure( 57 )
the area under the curve between the limits of xD and
xw gives the value of the integral in equation(1) from
which W is then found .
4-Finally from equations
(2) and (3) D and xD are
computed.
The heat to be supplied
to provide the reflux is
QR = RD
(b)Batch Rectification at Constant Top Product :
If the composition of the top product is to be kept
constant, the reflux ratio must be increased steadily.
In this type of operation, generally N, F, xF , xD and xw are
known.
1-First D and W are calculated from equations (1)and(2).
2-points xF , xD and xW are located on the xy diagram. A
Line from point xD is drawn and slope of this line is
changed until the given number of stages between point
xD and xW fit.
3-The reflux ratio, calculated from the slope of this line
gives the reflux ratio at which the operation will be stopped.
It is obvious that the
reflux ratio will be
increased continuously
from the initial value
to the final value .
The total amount of
distillate collected D
can be determined
from material balance
(before and after the
Distillation process):
F=D+W
F xF = D xD + W xw
F x F = D x D + (F - D) x w
F xF = D xD + F xw - D xw
F ( xF - xw ) = D ( xD - xw )
F ( xF - xw )
D =
( xD - xw )
R assumed Xw ,assumed
D = F (XF Xwass )/ (XD Xwass)
R initial x initial D initial
R ------------ -------------
------------ --------------
R
R final x final D final
If the reflux ratio R is assumed to be adjusted
Continuously to keep the top product at constant value,
then at any moment the reflux ratio given by:-
R = dL/dD
L R final
dL =
0 R initial
RdD
L R final
QR = dL = RdD
0 R initial