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figure 4.1.
One fundamental
application of this
piecewise linear behavior
is the rectifier.
Q: What is a rectifier?
A: Circuit which
converts AC waves in Figure 4.3(a): Rectifier Circuit
to DCideally with no
loss.
Oxford University Publishing
Microelectronic Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C. Smith (0195323033)
4.1.2: A Simple
Application The
Rectifier
Most common
implementation of a
diode utilizes pn junction.
I-V curve consists of three
characteristic regions
forward bias: v > 0
reverse bias: v < 0
breakdown: v << 0
I-V relationship is kT
(eq4.2) VT 25.8mV
closely approximated q at room
temperature
by equations to right.
IS constant for diode at given
temperature (aka. saturation current)
This relationship i
applies over as many (eq4.4) v VT ln
as seven decades of IS
current.
I2 IS eV2 / VT
Q: What is the relative V1 / VT
I1 IS e
effect of current flow (i) step #3: combine two exponentials
on forward biasing
I2
voltage (v)? e(V2 V1 ) / VT
I1
A: Very small.
step #4: invert this expression
10x change in i, effects
60mV change in v. V2 V1 VT ln I2 / I1
step #5: convert to log base 10
V2 V1 2.3VT log I2 / I1
Oxford University Publishing 60 mV 2.3VT log10 / 1
Microelectronic Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C. Smith (0195323033)
4.2.1: The
Forward-Bias
Region
cut-in voltage is
voltage, below which,
minimal current flows
approximately 0.5V
fully conducting region
is region in which Rdiode is
approximately equal 0
between 0.6 and 0.8V
Refer to textbook
i IS i IS i IS e v / VT
V = 10VT
V = -VZK
V = -VT
(eq4.6) ID IS eVD / VT
VD voltage across diode
ID current through diode
Pros
Intuitive
b/c of visual nature
Cons
Poor Precision
Not Practical for Figure 4.11: Graphical analysis of
Complex Analyses the circuit in Fig. 4.10 using the
multiple lines required exponential diode model.
Pros
High Precision
Cons
Not Intuitive
Not Practical for Complex Analyses
10+ iterations may be required
figure 4.1.
Time-Varying
AC
Solution
(vd.)
Figure 4.14: (a) Circuit for Example 4.5. (b) Circuit for calculating the
dc Oxford
Microelectronic Circuits by
University Publishing
operating point.
Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth (c) Small-signal equivalent circuit.
C. Smith (0195323033)
4.3.7. Small-Signal
Model
2! 3! 4!
series expansion to
(4.12). action: apply power series expansion to (4.12)
negligible terms
v
(eq4.14) iD (t ) ID 1 d
VT
1 x
y
y(t) y0 x(t) x0
x y Y
VT
rd
ID
Oxford University Publishing
Microelectronic Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C. Smith (0195323033)
Example 4.5:
Small-Signal Model
One important
application of diode is the
rectifier
Electrical device which
converts alternating
current (AC) to direct
current (DC)
One important Figure 4.20: Block diagram of a
application of rectifier is dc power supply
dc power supply.
Oxford University Publishing
Microelectronic Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C. Smith (0195323033)
step #1: increase / decrease rms magnitude of
AC wave via power transformer
step #2: convert full-wave AC to half-wave DC
(still time-varying and periodic)
step #3: employ low-pass filter to reduce wave
amplitude by > 90%
step #4: employ voltage regulator to eliminate
ripple
step #5: supply dc load
.
half-wave rectifier
utilizes only alternate
half-cycles of the input
sinusoid
Constant voltage drop
diode model is
employed.
An alternative
implementation of the
full-wave rectifier is
bridge rectifier.
Shown to right.
Pulsating nature of
rectifier output makes
unreliable dc supply.
As such, a filter
capacitor is employed
to remove ripple.
Figure 4.24: (a) A simple circuit used to illustrate the effect of a
filter capacitor. (b) input and output waveforms assuming an ideal
Oxford University Publishing diode.
Microelectronic Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C. Smith (0195323033)
4.5.4. The Rectifier
with a Filter Capacitor
Q: What happens
when load resistor is
placed in series with
capacitor?
A: One must now
consider the
discharging of
capacitor across
load. Oxford University Publishing
Microelectronic Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C. Smith (0195323033)
4.5.4. The Rectifier
with a Filter Capacitor
vO t v I t v D
t
vO t Vpeak e RC
dvI
iD C iL
Oxford University Publishing
Microelectronic Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C. Smith (0195323033)
dt
Q: What happens when
load resistor is placed in
series with capacitor?
vO vI vD
circuit state #1
1
VO s RCVO 0
dv RC s
vO RiL L vO RC O 0
action: replace dt RC
iL with -iC action: take Laplace transform action: solve for VO s
vO RiC VO s RC sVO s VO 0 0 V s V 0 1
O O
action: define iC 1
differentially dv
transform of O s
dt RC
dvO action: seperate disalike / collect alike terms
vO R C
action: take inverse Laplace
dt VO s RCsVO s RCVO 0 1
iC L VO s VO 0
1
1RCs VO ( s ) s 1/ RC
initial
action: change sides condition
action: pull out RC action: solve
dv
vO RC O 0 1 RCs VO s RCVO 0
dt
t
1
s VO ( s )
RCPublishing
Oxford University
vO t VO 0 e RC
Q: What is VO(0)?
A: Peak of vI, because the transition between
state #1 and state #2 (aka. diode begins
blocking) approximately as vI drops below vC.
vO t v I t v D
t
vO t Vpeak e RC
vO t v I t
t
vO t Vpeak e RC
The diode conducts for a brief interval (t) near the peak
of the input sinusoid and supplies the capacitor with
charge equal to that lost during the much longer
discharge interval. The latter is approximately equal to
T.
Assuming an ideal diode, the diode conduction begins at
time t1 (at which the input vI equals the exponentially
decaying output vO). Diode conduction stops at time t2
shortly after the peak of vI (the exact value of t2 is
determined by settling of ID).
Oxford University Publishing
Microelectronic Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C. Smith (0195323033)
A Couple of
Observations
T is discharge interval
Q: How is ripple voltage (Vr) defined? V V v (T )
peak r O
step #1: Begin with transient
RCT
response of output during off Vpeak Vr Vpeak e
interval.
step #2: Note T is discharge because RC T ,
we can assume...
T
interval. e
RC 1
T
RC
step #3: Simplify using action: solve for
ripple voltage Vr
assumption that RC >> T.
step #4: Solve for ripple voltage T
(eq4.28) Vr Vpeak
Vr. RC
T
1 1
Oxford University Publishing RC
Microelectronic Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C. Smith (0195323033)
4.5.4. The Rectifier
with a Filter Capacitor
Q: What is a limiter
circuit?
A: One which limits
voltage output.
Q: What is a dc restorer?
A: Circuit which removes the
dc component of an AC wave.
Q: Why is this ability important?
A: Average value of this
output (w/ dc = 0) is effective
way to measure duty cycle Figure 4.32: The clamped
capacitor or dc restorer
with a square-wave input
Oxford University Publishing and no load
Microelectronic Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C. Smith (0195323033)
4.6.3: The Voltage
Doubler
Q: What is a voltage
doubler?
A: One which
multiplies the
amplitude of a wave
or signal by two.
Figure 4.34: Voltage doubler: (a)
circuit; (b) waveform of the
Oxford University Publishing
Microelectronic Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C. Smith (0195323033)
voltage across D1.
Summary (1)