A Fourth Grading Project in Advanced Chemistry

JOANNA EVE ALEXANDRA O. RAMOS

REGINE J. REMOROZA
GLENN OLIVER L. FERRER
ALLAN L. ESCANILLA
RAMDOLF GENER
IV - Diamond
 Lewis dot symbol consists of the symbol of an

element and one dot for each valence electron in

an atom of the element.

 Covalent chemical bonds involved the sharing
of a pair of valence electrons by two atoms, in
contrast to the transfer of electrons in ionic
bonds.
Hydrogen gas forms the simplest covalent
bond in the diatomic gases by forming covalent
bonds. The nitrogen and oxygen which makes up
the bulk of the atmosphere also exhibits covalent
bonding in forming diatomic molecules.
 Electrons are shared between two atoms with

the same electronegativity values.

Difference = 0

Examples:

N2 Br2
 Electrons are shared between different
nonmetal atoms.

Examples:

O-Cl O-S N-Cl

 Covalent bonding
can be visualize
with the aid of
Lewis Diagrams

LEWIS DIAGRAMS the inner closed shells of electrons can be considered as

included in chemical symbol for the element, and the outer shell or valence
electrons are represented by dots.
THE CONCEPT OF RESONANCE
Our drawing of the Lewis Structure for ozone
satisfied the octet rule for the central atom
because we placed a double bond between it and
one of the two end 0 atoms. In fact, we can put
the double bond at either end of the molecule, as
shown by these two equivalent Lewis structures:

O == O O O O ==O
 The octet rule refers to the tendency of

atoms to prefer to have eight electrons in

their valence shell. When atoms have less than

eight electrons, they tend to react and form more

stable compounds. An octet corresponds to an

electron configuration ending with s2p6.

 INCOMPLETE OCTET
The number of electrons surrounding the
central atom in a stable is fewer than eight.

Example: B2O3

The oxygens follow the octet rule, but the

borons have only six electrons each. Each bond
consists of two electrons being shared.
Example 2:
1.BeH2

H Be H
2.MgCl2

Cl Mg

Cl

3.BF3

F
F


B

F

 Some elements, especially nitrogen, have an
odd number of electrons and will form somewhat
stable elements. Nitric oxide has the formula NO.
No matter how electrons are shared between the
nitrogen and oxygen atoms, there is no way for
nitrogen to have an octet. It will have seven
electrons instead. An atom with an unpaired
electron is called a free radical and is highly
reactive.

Nitrogen dioxide has an unpaired electron. (Note

the positive charge above the N).
 In Period 3, the elements on the right side of
the periodic table have empty d orbitals. The d
orbitals may accept electrons, allowing elements
like sulfur and phosphorus to have more than an
octet. Compounds such as PCl5 and SF6 can form.
These compounds have 10 and 12 electrons around
their central atoms, respectively.

Xenon hexafluoride uses d-

electrons to form more than an
octet. This compound shows
another exception: a noble gas
compound.
EXAMPLES:

1.SF6
F




F
F
S

F F

F

2. PCl5

Cl

Cl P Cl

Cl Cl


Illustrate the Chemical bonds of the following compounds:

1.) Water
2.) Ethylene
3.) Acetylene
4.) Sulfate
5.) Phosphate
6.) Carbonate
7.) Phosphite
1.)

2.)

3.)
4.)

5.)
6.)

7.)
 VSEPR accounts for the geometric

arrangements of electron pairs around a central

atom in terms of the electrostatic repulsion

between electron pairs.

N 3 lone pairs
Basic Geometry 2 lone pairs
o. 1 lone pair
0 lone pair

2
Linear
3

Trigonal Planar Bent

4

Tetrahedral Trigonal Pyramid Bent

5

Trigonal
bipyramid Seesaw T-shaped Linear
N 3 lone pairs
o. Basic Geometry 2 lone pairs
1 lone pair
0 lone pair

Octahedral Square pyramid Square planar

Pentagonal Pentagonal
byramid pyramid
 Examples
Molecular Type Shape Geometry

AX1En Diatomic HF, O2

BeCl2, HgCl2, C
AX2E0 Linear
O2

AX2E1 Bent NO2, SO2, O3

AX2E2 Bent H2O, OF2

AX2E3 Linear XeF2, I3

 Examples
Molecular Type Shape Geometry

BF3, CO32, NO3

AX3E0 Trigonal Planar , SO
3

AX3E1 Trigonal Pyramidal NH3, PCl3

AX3E2 T-shaped ClF3, BrF3

CH4, PO43, SO42

AX4E0 Tetrahedral , ClO
4

AX4E1 Seesaw SF4

 Determine what shape of molecule shown on each
illustration:

1. 3.

2. 4.
1. Square planar

2. Square pyramidal

3. Tetrahedral

4. Trigonal planar
HYBRIDIZATION OF ATOMIC ORBITALS
The solution to the Schrodinger Equation
provides the wavefunctions for the following
atomic orbitals:
1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 3d, 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f, etc.
For atoms containing two or more electrons,
the energy levels are shifted with respect to those
of the H atom. An atomic orbital is really the
energy state of an electron bound to an atomic
nucleus. The energy state changes when one
atom is bonded to another atom.
 At this level, we consider the following hybrid
orbitals:
sp
sp2
sp3
sp3d
sp3d2
 The sp hybrid atomic orbitals are possible
states of electron in an atom, especially when it is
bonded to others. These electron states have half
2s and half 2p characters. From a mathematical
view point, there are two ways to combine the
2s and 2p atomic orbitals:
sp1 = 2s + 2p
sp2 = 2s - 2p
 he energy states of the valence electrons in atoms
of the second period are in the 2s and 2p orbitals.
If we mix two of the 2p orbitals with a 2s orbital,
we end up with three sp2 hybridized orbitals.
These three orbitals lie on a plane, and they point
to the vertices of a equilateral triangle as shown
here.When the central atom makes use
of sp2 hybridized orbitals, the compound so
formed has a trigonal shape. BF3 is such a
molecule:
 Mixing one s and all three p atomic orbitals
produces a set of four equivalent sp3 hybrid
atomic orbitals. The four sp3 hybrid orbitals
points towards the vertices of a tetrahedron, as
shown here in this photograph.When sp3 hybrid
orbitals are used for the central atom in the
formation of molecule, the molecule is said to
have the shape of a tetrahedron.
 Metallic Bond

Ionic Bond

Covalent Bond

Hydrogen Bond
 The properties of metals suggest that their
atoms possess strong bonds, yet the ease of
conduction of heat and electricity suggest that
electrons can move freely in all directions in a
metal. The general observations give rise to a
picture of positive ions in a sea of electrons to
describe metallic bonding.
 Formed between atoms of metallic elements.

Electron cloud around atoms.

Good conductor at all states, lustrous, very high

melting points.
 In chemical bonds, atoms can either transfer
or share their valence electrons. In the extreme
case where one or more atoms lose electrons and
other atoms gain them in order to produce a noble
gas electron configuration, the bond is called an
ionic bond.

Typical of ionic bonds are those in the alkali

halides such as sodium chloride (NaCl).
 Crystalline solids (made of ions)

High melting and boiling points

Conduct electricity when melted

Soluble in water but not in nonpolar liquid

 Hydrogen bonding differs from other uses of
the word bond" since it is a force of attraction
between a hydrogen atom in one molecule and a
small atom of high electronegativity in another
molecule. That is, it is an intermolecular force,
not an intermolecular force as in the common use
of the word bond.
Hydrogen bonding has a very important effect
on the properties of water and ice. Hydrogen
bonding is also very important in proteins and
nucleic acids and therefore in life processes. The
"unzipping" of DNA is a breaking of hydrogen bonds
which help hold the two strands of the double
helix together.
A. Water molecules are assymetrical. The positively-charged
portions of one are attracted to the negatively-charged parts of
another. It takes a lot of energy to pull them apart.
B. The assymetrical charge distribution on water molecule makes
it very effective in dissolving ionically-bonded materials.
However, it is not an effective solvent of covalently bonded
materials.
C. When water freezes, it assumes a very open structure and
actully expands. Most materials shrink when they freeze and
sink in their liquid phases.
 Ionic bonding holds rocks and minerals together.

Covalent bonding holds people and other

organisms together.

Metallic bonding holds civilization together.

Hydrogen bonding gives water its heat-retaining

and solvent properties.