UNIT V

Radiography
 History of Radiography
X-rays were discovered in 1895 by Wilhelm Conrad
Roentgen (1845-1923) who was a Professor at
Wurzburg University in Germany.
Working with a cathode-ray tube in his laboratory,
Roentgen observed a fluorescent glow of crystals on a
table near his tube. The tube that Roentgen was working
with consisted of a glass envelope (bulb) with positive and
negative electrodes encapsulated in it. The air in the tube
was evacuated, and when a high voltage was applied, the
tube produced a fluorescent Glow.
Roentgen shielded the tube with heavy black paper, and
discovered a green colored fluorescent light generated by
a material located a few feet away from the tube.
 Properties of X-Rays and Gamma Rays

They are not detected by human senses (cannot be seen,

heard, felt, etc.).
They travel in straight lines at the speed of light.
Their paths cannot be changed by electrical or magnetic
fields.
They can be diffracted to a small degree at interfaces
between two different materials.
They pass through matter until they have a chance
encounter with an atomic particle.
Their degree of penetration depends on their energy and
the matter they are traveling through.
They have enough energy to ionize matter and can damage
or destroy living cells.
 X-Radiation

X-rays are just like any other kind of electromagnetic

radiation. They can be produced in parcels of energy called
photons, just like light.
There are two different atomic processes that can produce X-
ray photons. One is called Bremsstrahlung and is a German
term meaning "braking radiation." The other is called K-shell
emission.
They can both occur in the heavy atoms of tungsten. Tungsten
is often the material chosen for the target or anode of the x-
ray tube.
 Bremsstrahlung Radiation
X-ray tubes produce x-ray photons by accelerating a stream of
electrons to energies of several hundred kilovolts with velocities of
several hundred kilometers per hour and colliding them into a heavy
target material.

The abrupt acceleration of the charged particles (electrons) produces

Bremsstrahlung photons.

X-ray radiation with a continuous spectrum of energies is produced

with a range from a few keV to a maximum of
the energy of the electron beam.
Target materials for industrial tubes are
typically tungsten, which means that the wave
functions of the bound tungsten electrons are
required.
 K-shell Emission Radiation
The K-shell is the lowest energy state of an atom. An
incoming electron can give a K-shell electron enough
energy to knock it out of its energy state. Then, a tungsten
electron of higher energy (from an outer shell) can fall into
the K-shell. The energy lost by the falling electron shows
up in an emitted x-ray photon. Meanwhile, higher energy
electrons fall into the vacated energy state In the outer
shell, and so on. K-shell emission produces higher-
intensity x-rays than Bremsstrahlung, and the x-ray photon
comes out at a single wavelength.
 Gamma Radiation

Gamma radiation is one of the three types of

natural radioactivity.
Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation,
like X-rays. The other two types of natural
radioactivity are alpha and beta radiation,
which are in the form of particles.
Gamma rays are the most energetic form of
electromagnetic radiation, with a very short
wavelength of less than one-tenth of a
nanometer
 X-ray Generators
The major components of an X-ray
generator are the tube, the high voltage generator,
the control console, and the cooling system.

X-rays are generated by directing a stream of high

Speed electrons at a target material such as tungsten,
which has a high atomic number. When the
electrons are slowed or stopped by the interaction with the atomic
particles of the target, X radiation is produced.

This is accomplished in an X-ray Tube.

The X ray tube is one of the components of

an X-ray generator and tubes come a variety of shapes and sizes.
 Gamma Sources
Manmade radioactive sources are produced by introducing an extra neutron
to atoms of the source material. As the material rids itself of the neutron,
energy is released in the form of gamma rays.

Two of the more common industrial gamma-ray sources for industrial

radiography are iridium-192 and cobalt-60. These isotopes emit radiation in a
few discreet wavelengths.

Cobalt-60 will emit a 1.33 and a 1.17 MeV gamma ray, and iridium-192 will
emit 0.31, 0.47, and 0.60 MeV gamma rays.

In comparison to an X-ray generator, cobalt-60 produces energies comparable

to a 1.25 MeV X-ray system and iridium-192 to a 460 keV X-ray system.

These high energies make it possible to penetrate thick materials with a

relatively short exposure time and are very portable. The disadvantage of a
radioactive source is that it can never be turned off and safely managing the
source is a constant responsibility.
Gamma Sources
 Radiation Safety
Standard Operating Procedures
Appropriate handling and use of licensed sealed sources and radiographic
exposure devices so that no person is likely to be exposed to radiation doses
in excess of the established exposure limits.
Methods and occasions for conducting radiation surveys.
Methods for controlling access to radiographic areas.
Methods and occasions for locking and securing radiographic exposure
devices, transport and storage containers and sealed sources.
Personnel monitoring and the use of personnel monitoring equipment.
Transporting sealed sources to field locations, including packing of
radiographic exposure devices and storage containers in the vehicles,
placarding of vehicles when needed, and control of the sealed sources
during transportation.
The inspection, maintenance, and operability checks of radiographic
exposure devices, survey instruments, transport containers, and storage
containers.
The procedure(s) for identifying and reporting defects and noncompliance.
Maintenance of records.
 Radiographic Film
X-ray films for general radiography consist of an
emulsion-gelatin containing radiation sensitive silver
halide crystals, such as silver bromide or silver chloride,
and a flexible, transparent, blue-tinted
base.
The emulsion is coated on both sides
of the base in layers about 0.0005 inch
thick. Putting emulsion on both sides
of the base doubles the amount of radiation-sensitive
silver halide, and thus increases the film speed.
The emulsion layers are thin enough so developing,
fixing, and drying can be accomplished in a reasonable
time.
 Film Selection - CRITERIA

Composition, shape, and size of the part being

examined and, in some cases, its weight and
location.
Type of radiation used, whether x-rays from an x-
ray generator or gamma rays from a radioactive
source.
Kilovoltages available with the x-ray equipment
or the intensity of the gamma radiation.
Relative importance of high radiographic detail or
quick and economical results.
 RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION TECHNIQUES
Single-Wall Technique. In the single-wall radiographic testing
technique, the radiation passes through only one wall of the weld
(material), which is viewed for acceptance on the radiograph.
Double-Wall Technique. When it is not practical to use a single-wall
technique, one of the following double-wall techniques shall be used.

Single-Wall Viewing. For materials and for welds in components, a

technique may be used in which the radiation passes through two walls and
only the weld (material) on the film-side wall is viewed for acceptance on
The radiograph. When complete coverage is required for circumferential
Welds (materials), a minimum of three exposures taken 120 deg to each
other shall
be made.

Double-Wall Viewing. For materials and for welds in components 312 in.
(89 mm) or less in nominal outside diameter, a technique may be used in
which the radiation passes through two walls and the weld (material) in
both walls is viewed for acceptance on the same radiograph .For double-
wall viewing, only a source-side IQI shall be used. Care should be exercised
to ensure that the required geometric unsharpness is not exceeded. If the
geometric unsharpness requirement cannot be met, then single-wall
viewing shall be used.
 Image Considerations

Radiographic sensitivity is a measure of the

quality of an image in terms of the smallest
detail or discontinuity that may be detected.
Radiographic sensitivity is dependant on the
combined effects of two independent sets of
variables. One set of variables affects the
contrast and the other set of variables affects
the definition of the image.
 Radiographic contrast
Radiographic contrast is the degree of density
difference between two areas on a radiograph.
Contrast makes it easier to distinguish features of
interest, such as defects, from the surrounding area.
The image shows two radiographs of the same step
wedge. The upper radiograph has a high level of
contrast and the lower radiograph has a lower level of
contrast. While they are both imaging the same
change in thickness, the high contrast image uses a
larger change in radiographic density to show this
change.
In each of the two radiographs, there is a small circle,
which is of equal density in both radiographs. It is
much easier to see in the high contrast radiograph.
 Radiographic definition

Radiographic definition is the

abruptness of change in going from one
area of a given radiographic density to
another. Like contrast, definition also
makes it easier to see features of
interest, such as defects, but in a totally
different way.
In the image to the right, the upper
radiograph has a high level of definition
and the lower radiograph has a lower
level of definition.
 Real-time Radiography
Real-time radiography (RTR), or real-time radioscopy, is a
nondestructive test (NDT) method whereby an image is produced
electronically, rather than on film, so that very little lag time occurs
between the item being exposed to radiation and the resulting image.

In most instances, the electronic image that is viewed results from the
radiation passing through the object being inspected and interacting
with a screen of material that fluoresces or gives off light when the
interaction occurs. The fluorescent elements of the screen form the
image much as the grains of silver form the image in film radiography.

The image formed is a "positive image" since brighter areas on the

image indicate where higher levels of transmitted radiation reached
the screen. This image is the opposite of the negative image produced
in film radiography. In other words, with RTR, the lighter, brighter
areas represent thinner sections or less dense sections of the test
object.
 Computed Tomography
Computed Tomography is a powerful nondestructive evaluation
technique for producing 2-D and 3-D cross-sectional images of
an object from flat X-ray images. Characteristics of the internal
structure of an object such as dimensions, shape, internal
defects, and density are readily available from CT images.
 Computed Tomography

The test component is placed on a turntable stage that

is between a radiation source and an imaging system.

The turntable and the imaging system are connected

to a computer so that x-ray images collected can be
correlated to the position of the test component.

The imaging system produces a 2-dimensional

shadowgraph image of the specimen just like a film
radiograph. Specialized computer software makes it
possible to produce cross-sectional images of the test
component as if it was being sliced.
Computed Tomography - IMAGES