Introduction to Quality

By
Dr. Abhay K Srivastava
Outline
What is Quality?
History of Quality Methodology
Introduction to Process
Demings Principles
Taguchis Contributions And Philosophy
Total Quality Management
Quality Improvement Tools
Costs related to quality
Benefits/Drawbacks
What does the word quality mean to
you?
Think about your past experiences staying at
various hotels. Did you stay at a quality
hotel? What about the experience made it a
quality experience for you?

Think about a product you bought. How can

you define its quality?
Dimensions of Quality
Garvin (1987)
1. Performance:
Will the product/service do the intended job?
2. Reliability:
How often does the product/service fail?
3. Durability:
How long does the product/service last?
4. Serviceability:
How easy to repair the product / to solve the
problems in service?
Dimensions of Quality
5. Aesthetics:
What does the product/service look/smell/sound/feel
like?
6. Features:
What does the product do/ service give?
7. Perceived Quality:
What is the reputation of the company or its
products/services?
8. Conformance to Standards:
Is the product/service made exactly as the
designer/standard intended?
Quality in different areas of society
Area Examples
Airlines On-time, comfortable, low-cost service
Correct diagnosis, minimum wait time, lower
Health Care
cost, security
Food Services Good product, fast delivery, good environment
Postal Services fast delivery, correct delivery, cost containment
Proper preparation for future, on-time
Academia
knowledge delivery
Consumer Products Properly made, defect-free, cost effective
Insurance Payoff on time, reasonable cost
Military Rapid deployment, decreased wages, no graft
Automotive Defect-free
Communications Clearer, faster, cheaper service
What is Quality?
Conformance to specifications (British Defense
Industries Quality Assurance Panel)
Conformance to requirements (Philip Crosby)
Fitness for purpose or use (Juran)
A predictable degree of uniformity and dependability, at
low cost and suited to the market (Edward Deming)
Synonymous with customer needs and expectations (R
J Mortiboys)
Meeting the (stated) requirements of the customer- now
and in the future (Mike Robinson)
The total composite product and service characteristics
of marketing, engineering, manufacturing and
maintenance through which the product and service in
use will meet the expectations by the customer (Armand
Feigenbaum)
What is Quality?
The degree to which a system, component, or
process meets
(1) specified requirements, and
(2) customer or users needs or expectations IEEE

The totality of features and characteristics of a

product or service that bears on its ability to satisfy
stated or implied needs ISO 8402

Degree to which a set of inherent characteristics

fulfils requirements ISO 9000:2000
Definitions of Quality
Transcendent definition: excellence
Product-based definition: quantities of
product attributes
User-based definition: fitness for intended
use; meeting or exceeding user
expectations
Value-based definition: quality vs. price
Manufacturing-based definition:
conformance to specifications

9
More about Quality
Realistic but demanding STANDARDS;

Getting things RIGHT FIRST TIME; It costs

less to prevent a problem than it does to
correct it
Influences the relationship with CUSTOMERS;
Influences how COMPLAINTS are dealt with;
Something to do with how things LOOK and
FEEL.
Modern Importance of Quality
The first job we have is to turn out quality
merchandise that consumers will buy and keep
on buying. If we produce it efficiently and
economically, we will earn a profit.
- William Cooper Procter

11
History of Quality Methodology
Reach back into antiquity, especially into India,
Greece, China and the Roman Empire : skilled
craftsmanship.

Industrial Revolution (18th century): need for

more consistent products that are mass-
produced and needed to be interchangeable.
Rise of inspection after manufacturing completed
and separate quality departments.

12
History of Quality Methodology
Science of modern quality methodology started
by R. A. Fisher perfected scientific shortcuts for
shifting through mountains of data to spot key
cause-effect relationships to speed up
development of crop growing methods.

Statistical methods at Bell Laboratories: W. A.

Shewhart transformed Fishers methods into
quality control discipline for factories (inspired
W.E. Deming and J. M. Juran); Control Charts
developed by W. A. Shewhart; Acceptance
sampling methodology developed by H. F. Dodge
and H. G. Romig
13
History of Quality Methodology
World War II: Acceptance of statistical quality-control
concepts in manufacturing industries (more
sophisticated weapons demanded more careful
production and reliability); The American Society for
Quality Control formed (1946).

Quality in Japan: W.E. Deming invited to Japan to

give lectures; G. Taguchi developed Taguchi
method for scientific design of experiments; The
Japanese Union of Scientists and Engineers (JUSE)
established Deming Price (1951); The Quality
Control Circle concept is introduced by K. Ishikawa
(1960).
14
History of Quality Methodology
Quality awareness in U.S. manufacturing industry
during 1980s: Total Quality Management; Quality
control started to be used as a mangement tool.

Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award (1987)

International Standard Organizations (ISO) 9000

series of standards: in 1980s Western Europe began
to use; interest increase in US industry in 1990s;
Became widely accepted today: necessary
requirement to world-wide distribution of product and
a significant competitive advantage.
15
History of Quality Methodology
Quality in service industries, government,
health care, and education

Current and future challenge: keep progress

in quality management alive

To sum up: A gradual transition

Statistical Quality
Quality
Quality Management
Assurance
Control
16
Process Basics
Definition of a process
A process is a collection of interacting
components that transform inputs into outputs
toward a common aim called a mission
statement.

Inputs Process Outputs

Manpower Transformation of Manpower
inputs, value (time, Equipment
Equipment
place, form) is added
Materials/Goods or created Materials/Goods

Methods Methods

Environment Environment
17
Definition of a process

It is managements job to optimize the entire

process toward its aim.

This may require the sub-optimization of

selected components of the process.

18
Definition of a Process
Processes exist in all facets of organizations and
our understanding of them is crucial
Administration
Sales and service
Human resources
Maintenance
Communication
Production

Relationships between people are processes

All processes can be studied, documented,
defined, improved, and innovated

19
Definition of a process
An organization is a multiplicity of micro sub-
processes, all synergistically building to the macro
process of that firm.

All processes have customers and suppliers;

these customers and suppliers can be internal or
external to the organization.

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Variation in a Process
The outputs from all processes and their
component parts vary over time.

Actual Values
Number of

(Variation among
Accidents

actual values)

Variation between Ideal and Actual Values

Ideal Value = 0

Time 21
Variation in a process
Special causes of variation are due to
events external to the usual functioning of a
system.
Examples could include (if they are not part of the system):
New raw materials
A drunk employee
A new operator

22
Variation in a process
Common causes of variation are due to the
process itself.
Process capability is determined by inherent
common causes of variation.
Examples of common causes of variation include:
Hiring, training and supervisory practices
Lighting
Stress
Management style
Policies and procedures
Design of products or services

23
Variation in a process
Employees cannot control a common cause of
variation and should not be held accountable
for, or penalized for, its outcomes.

Managers must realize that unless a change

is made in the process (which only they can
make) the processs capability will remain the
same.

24
About the Feedback Loop
A feedback loop relates information about
outputs from any stage or stages back to
another stage or stages so that an analysis of
the process can be made.

Input Process Output

Feedback Loop

25
More About the Feedback Loop

There are three feedback loop situations

no feedback loop
special cause only feedback loop
special and common cause feedback loop

26
Demings 14 Principles.
1. Create Constancy of Purpose
Define the problems of today and the future
Allocate resources for long-term planning
Allocate resources for research and education
Constantly improve design of product and service
2. Adopt A New Philosophy
Quality costs less not more
Superstitious learning
The call for major change
Stop looking at your competition and look at your customer
instead
3. Cease Dependence On Inspection For Quality
Quality does not come from inspection
Mass inspection is unreliable, costly, and ineffective
Inspectors fail to agree with each other
Inspection should be used to collect data for process control
Demings 14 Principles.
4. End Proactive Awarding Of Business Based On PriceAlone
Price alone has no meaning
Change focus from lowest inital cost to lowest cost
Work toward a single source and long term relationship
Establish a mutual confidence and aid between purchaser and
vendor
5. Improve Every Process Constantly / Forever
Quality starts qith the intend of management
Teamwork in design is fundamental
Forever continue to reduce waste and continue to improve
Putting out fires is not improvement of the process
6. Institute Training
Management must provide the setting where workers can be
succesful
Management must remove the inhibitors to good work
Management needs an appreciation of variation
This is managements new role
Demings 14 Principles.
7. Adopt And Institute Leadership
Remove barriers to pride of workmanship
Know the work they supervise
Know the difference between special and common cause of
variation
8. Drive Out Fear
The common denominator of fear:
Fear of knowledge
Performance appraisals
Management by fear or numbers
9. Break Barriers Between Staff Areas
Know your internal suppliers and customers
Promote team work
10. Eliminate Slogans, Exhortations And Targets
They generate frustration and resentment
Use posters that explain what management is doing to improve
the work environment
Demings 14 Principles.
11. Eliminate Numerical Quotas
They impede quality
They reduce production
The persons job becomes meeting a quota
12. Remove Barriers That Rob Pride Of Workmanship
Performance appraisal systems
Production rates
Financial management systems
Allow people to take pride in their workmanship
13. Institute Programs For Education And Self Improvement
Commitment to lifelong employment
Work with higher education needs
Develop team building skills
14. Put Everybody In The Company To Work For This
Transformation
Struggle over the 14 points
Take pride in new philosophy
Include the critical mass of people in the change
QUALITY DOES NOT
OCCUR BY ACCIDENT
What does the customer actually want?
Identify, understand and agree
customer requirements

How are you going to meet those

requirements?
Plan to achieve them
 Demings Cycle
What are we trying to AIM
accomplish?
How will we know that a MEASURE
change is an improvement?
What change can we make that Selecting Change
will result in improvement?
Plan Plan

P P
Act Do
P Do

A D A A D D
C

C
C
Check
Check
Taguchis Contribution
In the early 1980s, Prof. Genechi
Taguchi introduced his approach to
using experimental design for

1) Designing products or processes so that they are robust to

environmental conditions.
2) Designing/developing products so that they are robust to
component variation.
3) Minimizing variation around a target value.

By robust, we mean that the product or process performs

consistently on target and is relatively insensitive to factors that
are difficult to control.
Taguchi Philosophy
3 stages in a products (or processs)
development:
1) System design: uses scientific and
engineering principles to determine
the basic configuration.
2) Parameter design: specific values for the system
parameters are determined.
3) Tolerance design: determine the best tolerances for the
parameters.
Taguchi Philosophy
Recommends: statistical experimental
design methods have to be used for
quality improvement, particularly
during parameter and tolerance
design phases.

Key component: reduce the variability around the

target (nominal) value.
 Quality Management
Quality Management System: Management system to direct and
control an organisation with regard to quality ISO 9000:2000

Quality Management

Quality Planning Quality Assurance Quality Control

Criteria driven Prevention driven Inspection driven

Quality Management Components
Quality Planning
It identifies the standards and determines how to
satisfy those standards.
It lays out the roles and responsibilities, resources,
procedures, and processes to be utilized for quality
control and quality assurance.

Quality Assurance
It is the review to ensure aligning with the quality
standards. An assessment will be provided here.
Planned and systematic quality activities.
Provide the confidence that the standards will be met.
Quality Control Inspection Driven
Quality Control
It addresses the assessment conducted during
Quality Assurance for corrective actions.
Measure specific results to determine that they
match the standards.
Use of Statistical Process Control (SPC) : a
methodology for monitoring a process to
identify special causes of variation and signal
the need to take corrective action when
appropriate.
SPC relies on control charts.
What is a Control Chart?
A control chart is a presentation of data in
which the control values are plotted against
time.

Control charts have a central line, upper and

lower warning limits, and upper and lower
action limits.

Immediate visualisation of problems.

 Control chart
-illustration of construction
Central line
X-chart Copper
Action limit
1.3 Warning limit
1.2

1.1

1.0

0.9

0.8
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Control value
When to Take Action?
One point plots outside the Action Limits.
Two consecutive points plots between the
Warning and Action Limits
Eight consecutive points plot on one side of
the Center Line
Six points plots steadily increasing or
decreasing
When an unusual or nonrandom pattern is
observed
When to Take Action?
4

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

-1

-2

-3

-4
Month
When to Take Action?
4

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

-1

-2

-3

-4
Month
 When to Take Action?
4

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

-1

-2

-3

-4
Month
 Quality Improvement Tools

Brainstorming Cause & Effect

Nominal Group Flow Diagram

Technique
Brainstorming

Everyone participates
Go round robin and only one person
speaks at a time
No discussion of ideas
There is no such thing as a dumb idea
Pass when necessary
Use BIG yellow sticky notes and
write only 1 idea per sticky note
One person assigned as scribe
For a complicated issue, the session
could last 30-45 minutesor longer!
Nominal Group Technique

Use a
Nominal Group Technique
To focus brainstorming results

An internet search on
Nominal Group Technique
Will yield many examples and methods
to apply this technique
 Flow Diagrams

Why is flow diagramming helpful?

Build a common understanding of a
whole process
Develop process thinking
Improve a process
Standardize a process

Week4_4
Week 4_5
Investigate the Root Causes

Understand the root causes of a

problem BEFORE you put a
solution into place
 Cause & Effect Diagrams
Why are cause and effect
diagrams helpful? Identify and display
many different possible
Root cause Root cause causes for a problem

See the relationships

Focused between the many
problem causes

Helps determine which

Root cause Root cause
data to collect
 How To Construct Cause & Effect
Diagrams
Clearly define the focused problem
Use brainstorming to identify possible causes
Sort causes into reasonable clusters (no less than 3, not more than 6)
Label the clusters (consider people, policies, procedures, materials if
you have not already identified labels)
Develop and arrange bones in each cluster
Check the logical validity of each causal chain
Building a Cause & Effect Diagram
Materials Policies
Lack of office Minimal
space Location
benefits
Restrictive budget No policy on staff
screening Turnover in
Back-biting
staff
Escorting clients to environment Lack of
appointments and supervision
having to wait
Paperwork Burnout
overwhelming Inadequate
training
Procedures People
Cause & Effect Diagrams
Bones should not include solutions

Bones should not include lists of process steps

Bones include the possible causes

Better understand the current

situation..
Now begin to develop a change.
To Summarize.

Brainstorming
Nominal Group Technique
Flow Diagram
Cause & Effect Diagram
Histogram
Used to visualize the distribution

Histogram of univariate sample

0.08

0.06
Density

0.04

0.02

0.00

20 30 40 50

measurement scale
Histogram
Histogram of univariate sample - bimodal tendency
0.04

0.03
Density

0.02

0.01

0.00

20 40 60 80

measurement scale
Histogram
Histogram of univariate sample - skewed tendency

0.04

0.03
Density

0.02

0.01

0.00

0 20 40 60 80

measurement scale
Pareto Chart
Chart consistencies of most frequent defects
Used to locate Major sources of problems
Able to use with Count and Categorical Data
Example Pareto Chart
Example Pareto Chart
120
100
100

80
80

Percent
Count

60
60

40
40

20 20

0 0
sample1 red blue green yellow Other
Count 53 27 19 7 2
Percent 49.1 25.0 17.6 6.5 1.9
Cum % 49.1 74.1 91.7 98.1 100.0
Control Charts
Used to determine if variation is chance or
assignable cause
Good for measuring control of variation
Control needed before Change
More appropriately applied to process rather
than product
Quality-related costs
Prevention costs
activities to keep unacceptable products from
being generated and to keep track of the
process
Appraisal costs
activities to maintain control of the system
Correction costs
activities to correct conditions out of control,
including errors
Prevention costs
Quality planning and engineering
New products review
Product/process design
Process control
Burn-in
Training
Quality data acquisition and analysis
Appraisal costs
Inspection and test of incoming material
Product inspection and test
Materials and services consumed
Maintaining accuracy of test equipment
Correction costs
1. Internal Failure Costs:
Scrap
Rework
Retest
Failure analysis
Downtime
Yield losses
Downgrading (off-specing)
Correction costs
2. External Failure Costs:
Complaint adjustment
Returned product/material
Warranty charges
Liability costs
Indirect costs
Cost of implementing quality management,
accreditation and quality assurance

correction

c quality management
o and assurance
s total
t

time
Internal and External Benefits of
Quality

Internal Benefits External Benefits

Customer gets correct
Reduces costs product or service
Increases dependability
Increases speed Correct specifications
Boosts moral Appropriate intangibles
Increases customer retention
Increases profit Customer satisfaction
Customer retention
Drawbacks
Long way to establish in the organisation
QM design not always fit for purpose (loss of
cost effectiveness)
Substantial efforts
Maintain system, otherwise reject it.