CHEMISTRY OF MAJOR

COMPOUNDS IN THE BODY

CARBOHYDRATES
LIPIDS
PROTEINS
NUCLEIC ACIDS
 CARBOHYDRATES
ALDEHYDE OR KETONE DERIVATES OF POLYHYDRIC ALCOHOLS

4 CLASSES BASED ON THEIR SIZE

I. MONOSACCHARIDES
- SMALLEST UNIT OF CARBOHYDRATES
- CANNOT BE HYDROLIZED INTO SIMPLER CARBOHYDRATES
- MONOSACCHARIDES MAY BE CLSSIFIED BASED ON THE NUMBER
OF THEIR CARBON ATOMS:
- TRIOSE : GLYCERALDEHYDE
- TETROSES : ERYTHROSE
- PENTOSES : RIBOSE
- HEXOSES : GLUCOSE, GALACTOSE, FRUCTOSE, MANNOSE
- HEPTOSES : SEDOHEPTULOSE
- SUGARS EXHIBIT VARIOUS FORMS OF ISOMERISM

1. D AND L SUGARS
- MONOSACCHARIDES ARE DESIGNATED D OR L,DEPENDING ON
THE CONFIGURATION OF THE ASYMETRIC CARBON FARTHEST
FROM THE CARBONYL GROUP
( D ISOMER IF THE HYDROXYL GROUP IN THE RIGHT SIDE,
L ISOMER IT THE HYDROXYL GROUP IN THE LEFT SIDE )
- MOST OF THE SUGARS IN LIVING ORGANISM BELONG TO
THE D SERIES

2. PYRANOSE AND FURANOSE RING STRUCTURE

- HEXOSES, SUCH AS THE ALDOHEXOSE OR THE KETO-HEXOSE
FORM EITHER SIX-MEMBERED RING (PYRANOSE)
OR FIVE-MEMBERED RING ( FURANOSE )
3. ALPHA AND BETA ANOMERS
- IF THE SUGAR IS DEPICTED WITH THE RING IN THE PLANE OF
THE PAPER, THE HYDROXYL GROUP COVALENTLY ATTACHED TO
THE ANOMERIC CARBON IS IN THE ALPHA POSITION IF IT IS
BELOW THE PLANE OF THE RING, BETA POSITION IF IT IS ABOVE
THE PLANE OF THE RING
4. EPIMERS
- ISOMER DIFFERING AS A RESULT OF VARIATIONS IN THE OH
AND H ON CARBON ATOMS
5. ALDOSE-KETOSE ISOMERISM
- ONE OF THE CARBON ATOM FORMS A CARBONYL GROUP VIA A
DOUBLE BOND WITH OXYGEN
ALDOSE IF THE CARBONYL GROUP IS AN ALDEHYDE
OR KETOSE IF IT IS A KETONE GROUP
 THE STRUCTURE OF GLUCOSE CAN BE REPRESENTED IN THREE
WAYS:
STRAIGHT-CHAIN STRUCTURE, RING STRUCTURE, CYCLIC STRUCTURE
(HAWORTH PROJECTION) AND THE CHAIR-BOAT FORM

II. DISACCHARIDES
- CONTAINS 2 MONOSACCHARIDES JOINED BY AN O-GLYCOSIDIC
BOND
- EXAMPLES : MALTOSE (GLUCOSE-GLUCOSE)
LACTOSE (GLUCOSE-GALACTOSE)
SUCROSE (GLUCOSE-FRUCTOSE)
III. OLIGOSACCHARIDES
- CONTAINS 3 10 MONOSACCHARIDES
- COMPONENTS OF GLYCOPROTEINS AND GLYCOLIPIDS

IV. POLYSACCHARIDES
- CONTAINS MORE THAN 10 MONOSACCHARIDES, JOINED BY
GLYCOSIDIC BOND
- EXAMPLES : STARCH
GLYCOGEN
INULIN
GLYCOSAMINOGLYCAN
 LIPIDS
CLASSIFICATION:

I. SIMPLE LIPID:
- ESTERS OF FATTY ACIDS WITH VARIOUS ALCOHOLS
II. COMPLEX LIPIDS:
- ESTERS OF FATTY ACIDS CONTAINING GROUPS IN ADDITION
TO AN ALCOHOL AND FATTY ACIDS
- EXAMPLES : FOSFOLIPID, GLYCOLIPID, LIPOPROTEIN
III. PRECURSOR AND DERIVED LIPID
- EXAMPLES : FATTY ACIDS, GLYCEROL, STEROIDS, KETONE
BODIES
FATTY ACIDS
- STRAIGHT ALIPHATIC CHAINS WITH METHYL GROUP AT ONE
END (OMEGA-CARBON) AND A CARBOXYL GROUP AT THE
OTHER END
- MOST FATTY ACIDS IN THE HUMAN HAVE AN EVEN NUMBER
OF CARBON ATOMS USUALLY BETWEEN 16 20
- FATTY ACIDS MAY BE SATURATED OR UNSATURATED
- THE DOUBLE BONDS IN MOST NATURALLY OCCURING FATTY
ACIDS ARE IN THE CIS CONFIGURATION (THE ACYL CHAINS ARE
ON THE SAME SIDE OF THE DOUBLE BONDS);
TRANS MEANS THAT THE ACYL CHAINS ARE ON OPPOSITE SIDES
OF THE DOUBLE BOND
ACYLGLYCEROLS
- FATTY ACIDS REACT WITH ALCOHOL (HYDROXYL) GROUPS TO
FORM ESTERS ---- TRIACYLGLYCEROLS

PHOSPHOACYLGLYCEROLS
- PHOSPHOACYLGLYCEROLS CONTAIN FATTY ACIDS ESTERFIED TO
POSITIONS 1 AND 2 OF GLYCEROL AND A PHOSPHORYL GROUP
AT POSITION 3
IF ONLY A PHOSPHATE GROUP IS ATTACH TO POSITION 3, THE
COMPOUND IS KNOWN AS PHOSPHATIDIC ACID

- COMPOUNDS DERIVED FROM PHOSPHATIDIC ACID THAT

CONTAIN SUBSTITUENTS ON THE PHOSPHATE GROUP ARE
KNOWN AS PHOSPHOLIPID (PHOSPHOGLYCERIDES).
SPHINGOLIPIDS
- SPHINGOLIPIDS ARE DERIVATES OF CERAMIDE (SYNTHESIZED
FROM SERINE , PALMITIC ACID) AND AN ADDITIONAL FATTY ACID
- PHOSPHOCHOLINE IS ESTERIFIED TO CERAMIDE IN
SPHINGOMYELIN ( PHOSPHOLIPID)
- SUGARS ARE ATTACHED TO CERAMIDE IN CEREBROSIDES AND
GANGLIOSIDES
- SPHINGOLIPIDS ARE MAJOR COMPONENTS OF MYELIN AND OF
THE MEMBRANES OF BRAIN AND OTHER NERVOUS TISSUE

EICOSANOIDS
- EICOSANOIDS ARE PRODUCED BY MANY CELL IN THE BODY,
SYNTHESIZED FROM POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS CONTAINING
20 CARBON ATOMS WITH 3, 4, OR 5 DOUBLE BONDS
- EXAMPLES : PROSTAGLANDINS, THROMBOXANS, LEUKOTRIENES
STEROIDS
- THE STEROIDS ARE A GROUP OF COMPOUNDS THAT CONTAIN A
STRUCTURE KNOWN AS THE STEROID NUCLEUS (CYCLOPENTANO
PERHYDRO PHENANTHRENE)
- CHOLESTEROL (SYNTHESIZED IN ANIMALS BUT NOT IN PLANTS)
IS THE PARENT COMPOUND FROM WHICH OTHER STEROIDS ARE
PRODUCED IN HUMANS
- CHOLESTEROL IS CONVERTED TO BILE SALTS, THE
ADRENOCORTICAL HORMONE ( STEROID HORMONE) AND THE SEX
HORMONES
- THE 3-HYDROXYL GROUP OF CHOLESTEROL CAN REACT WITH
FATTY ACIDS, FORMING CHOLESTEROL ESTERS WHICH ARE LESS
SOLUBLE THAN FREE CHOLESTEROL AND THREFORE IS STORED
AS DROPLETS IN CELLS, AND ALSO ARE FOUND IN THE BLOOD
LIPOPROTEINS
- THE BILE SALTS ARE AMPHIPATIC COMPOUNDS CONTAIN BOTH
HYDROPHOBIC AND HYDROPHILIC REGIONS, SERVING TO EMULSIFY
THE LIPIDS IN THE DIGESTIVE TRACT
 PROTEIN.

PROTEIN ARE SYNTHESIZED FROM AMINO ACIDS

THAT ARE JOINED
BY PEPTIDE BONDS.
AMINO ACIDS ARE THE BUILDING BLOKS OF PROTEIN
MOLECULES.

ALL OF AMINO ACIDS FOUND IN THE BODY PROTEIN

ARE OF THE
L- ALPHA- AMINO ACIDS. (EXCEPT GLYCINE).
 FOUR DIFFERENT LEVELS OF PROTEIN STRUCTURE.
-PRIMARY STRUCTURE : THE LINEAR SEQUENCE OF
AMINO ACIDS
THAT ARE LINKED TOGETHER BY PEPTIDE BONDS.
- SECONDARY STRUCTURE : REGIONS WITHIN
POLYPEPTIDE CHAINS
CAN FORM REGULAR, RECURRING, LOCALIZED
STRUCTURES THAT
RESULT FROM HYDROGEN BONDING BETWEEN
ATOMS OF THE PEPTIDE BONDS.
 - TERTIARY STRUCTURE : THE OVERALL
THREE-DIMENSIONAL CONFORMATION
OF PROTEIN.
FACTORS THAT STABILIZED THE
TERTIARY STRUCTURE :

- NONCOVALENT INTERACTIONS BETWEEN

THE SIDE CHAIN OF AMINO ACIDS RESIDUES

- HYDROPHOBIC AND ELECTROSTATIC INTERACTIONS

AS WELL
AS HYDROGEN BONDS,
COVALENT LINKAGES INVOLVING DISULFIDE
BOND FORMATION BETWEEN CYSTEINE
RESIDUES.

- VAN DER WAALS FORCES BETWEEN

THE ATOMS.

- QUATERNARY STRUCTURE : THE THREE-

DIMENSIONAL CONFORMATION OF A
MULTISUBUNIT PROTEIN COMPOSED OF A
NUMBER OF POLYPEPTIDE CHAINS (OR SUBUNITS) JOINED BY
NONCOVALENT
INTERACTIONS
 NUCLEIC ACIDS.

- POLYMER OF NUCLEOTIDES.
NUCLEOTIDES ARE COMPOSED OF :

- NITROGENOUS BASE (2 TYPES :

PURIN, PYRIMIDINES)

- SUGAR ( RIBOSE OR DEOXYRIBOSE).

- PHOSPHATE.
 PHOSPHATE GROUPS ATTACHED TO
NUCLEOSIDES (CONSIST OF
N-BASE AND SUGAR ; THE SUGAR IS JOINED
TO THE BASE BY AN
N-GLYCOSIDIC BOND ) BY AN ESTER BOND TO
THE SUGAR, USUALLY
AT THE 5-CARBON ).
- NUCLEOTIDES SERVE AS THE
MONOMERIC UNITS OF THE NUCLEIC
ACIDS, DNA AND RNA. BASE
PAIRING, WHICH INVOLVES
HYDROGEN BONDS, IS ESSENTIAL
FOR THE FUNCTION OF THE
NUCLEIC ACIDS.