CHAPTER 2:

CARBON COMPOUNDS
 A: CARBON COMPOUNDS

-are compounds that contain Carbon as one of

their constituent elements
 Carbon Compound

Organic Compound Inorganic Compound

-Carbon containing compounds -non-carbon
except oxides of carbon, carbonates, containing
syanides and metallic carbides compounds

Hydrocarbon Non-hydrocarbon
-contain Carbon and -contain C,H and
Hydrogen only O,N,P,S,F,Cl,Br,I

Alkanes Alkenes
(saturated (unsaturated
hydrocarbons) hydrocarbons) Alcohols Esters
-contain only single -contain at least one
bond multiple bond
Carboxylic
acids
 Inorganic Carbon
Organic compound
compound

Similarity
Both contain carbon atoms

Diffenrences

Protein, fats, cellulose, natural Examples Carbon dioxide, carbon

rubber, petroleum monoxide
Formed from living thing Origin Formed from minerals
Have low boiling points and Have high boiling points and
low melting point Effect of heat high melting point
Dissolve in organic solvents Dissolve in inorganic solvents
such as ether, petrol, alcohol Solubility such as ether, water, acids and
and chloroform alkalis
 Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons are organic compound that
contain only Carbon and Hydrogen

Natural sources of hydrocarbons:

Petroleum
Coal
Natural gas
Rubber trees
 B: ALKANES

General Formula : CnH2n+2 , n=1,2,3

Naming alkanes:

Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
of
Carbon
atoms
Root Meth- Eth- Prop- But- Pent- Hex- Hept- Oct- Non- Dec-
name
Final Methane Ethane Propane Butane Pentane Hexane Heptane Octane Nonane Decane
name
Structural Formula shows how the atoms in a
molecule are bonded together and by what types
of bonds

Example :

Ethane

C2H6
molecular formula structural formula
 Cannot
conduct
electricity

Insoluble in
Less dense water
than water
Physical
properties
Low melting
of alkanes and boiling
points-
dissolve in
organic because the molecules are held
solvents together by weak intermolecular
forces which can be overcome by
small amount of energy
Chemical properties of alkanes

a) Combustion
1. Complete combustion
Alkanes burn in air to form carbon dioxide and water
CH4 (g) + 2O2(g) CO2 (g) + 2H2O(l)

More soot is given off when a higher alkane is burnt.

For example, the burning of heptane produce more
soot than the burning of ethane

2. Incomplete combustion
If insufficient oxygen available, carbon monoxide or even
carbon may be formed
2CH4 (g) + 3O2(g) 2CO (g) + 4H2O(l)
CH4 (g) + O2(g) C (s) + 2H2O(l)
b) Halogenation

-Reaction of alkanes with halogens.

-readily takes place in sunlight (not occur in the dark)

-carbon-hydrogen bonds are broken and new

carbon-halogens bonds are formed

-is a substitution reaction

occurs when one atom or a group of atoms in a
molecule is replaced by another atom or group of
atoms
-Example:
when a mixture of CH4 and chlorine is exposed to
ultraviolet light, 4 different products are formed
CH4 (g) + Cl2(g) CH3Cl (g) + HCl(l)
Chloromethane hydrogen chloride
 C: ALKENES
is a hydrocarbons containing at least one carbon-carbon double
bond

General Formula : CnH2n , n=2,3,4

Naming alkenes:

Number 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
of
Carbon
atoms

Root Eth- Prop- But- Pent- Hex- Hept- Oct- Non- Dec-
name
Final Ethene Propene But-1-ene Pent-1-ene Hex-1-ene Hept-1-ene Oct-1-ene Non-1-ene Dec-1-ene

name
Structural formula of alkenes

Ethene: C2H4

Propene : C3H6
 Low melting
and boiling
point

Cannot conduct Soluble in

electricity at organic
any state Physical solvents
properties
of alkenes

Less dense than Insoluble in

water water
 (a)Combustion
reaction

(c) Chemical (b)Addition

Polymerization properties reaction
of alkenes
reaction
(i)Addition of hydrogen
(ii)Addition of halogens(halogenation)
(iii) Addition of hydrogen halides
(HCl, HBr, HI)
(iv) Addition of water (hydration)
(v) Addition of hydroxyl groups
Chemical properties of alkenes

a) Combustion reaction

Alkenes burn in excess oxygen to form carbon

dioxide and water

C2H4 (g) + 3O2(g) 2CO2 (g) + 2H2O(l)

Alkenes burn with sootier flames as compared to

alkanes because alkenes have a higher percentage
of carbon in their molecules than alkanes
b) Addition reaction

(i) Addition of hydrogen

This process is called catalytic hydrogenation

(ii) Addition of halogens (halogenation)

Observation: reddish-brown bomine is decolourised

and colourless liquid is formed

This reaction is used as a test for the presence of

a carbon-carbon double bond in organic molecules
(iii) Addition of hydrogen halides(HCl, HBr, HI)
 (iv) Addition of water (hydration)
(v) Addition of hydroxyl groups

Observation: purple solution of potassium

manganate (VII) is decolourized
c) Poymerization reaction
Homologous Series

A group or family of organic compounds that has the following

characteristics:

a) Members of the series can be represented by a general formula

b) Successive members differ from each other by CH2
c) Members can be prepared by similar methods
d) Physical properties change regularly with increasing number of
carbon atoms
e) Members have similar chemical properties because they have the
same functional group

functional group :
-a special group of atoms attached to an organic mlecule
-determines the chemical properties of the molecule
-chemical reactions occur at the functional group
 5 homologous series learnt in this
chapter:
Homologous General formula Functional Group
series
Alkane CnH2n+2 , n=1,2,3 Carbon-carbon single
bond, C-C
Alkene CnH2n , n=2,3,4 Carbon-carbon double
bond, C=C
Alcohol CnH2n+1OH ,n=1,2,3 Hydroxyl group, -OH

Carboxylic Acid CnH2n+1 COOH ,n=0,1,2, Carboxyl group, -COOH

Ester CnH2n+1 COOCmH2m+1, Carboxylate group, -COO-

n=0,1,2,
m=1,2,3
 Descending
homologous series

As the number of
carbon atoms per
First member
molecule increases:
Second member Melting point
Third member increases
.. Boiling point increases
.. Volatility decreases
..
Density increases
 D: ISOMERISM
Isomerism is a phenomenon whereby 2 or more
molecules are found to have same molecular
formula but different structural formula

Isomers: molecules with the same molecular

formula but with different structural
formula
 Example: C4H10
Steps to draw structural formula of isomers of
alkanes

Draw all the possible straight- chain and branched-chain carbon

skeletons

Place single bonds around every carbon atom. Ensure that each
carbon atom has 4 bonds

Place a hydrogen atom at each of the single bonds

Steps to draw structural formula of isomers of
alkenes

Draw all the possible carbon skeletons

For each carbon skeleton, place a double bond at different

locations

Place single bonds around each carbon atom. Ensure that each
carbon atom has 4 bonds

Place a hydrogen atom at each of the single bonds

How to name isomers?
Prefix
Root Ending
Denotes the
Denotes the Denotes rhe family
number and
longest carbon of the organic
identity of attached
chain compound
branches

Steps to name an alkane:

1 : Find the longest continuous carbon chain in the molecule
2 : Give the name for this longest chain
3 : Number the carbon atoms in this longest chain beginning at the
end nearest to the first branch (alkyl group)
4 : Locate and name the attached alkyl group
5 : Complete the name for the molecule by combining the three
component parts together. Write the name as a single word. Use
hyphens to separate numbers numbers and words, and commas to
separate numbers
 E: ALCOHOLS

General Formula : CnH2n+1OH ,n=1,2,3

Functional Group : -OH (hydroxyl group)

Naming alcohols

(a) straight-chain alcohol

Obtain the name of the alkane with

Step 1 the same number of carbon atoms
as the alcohol

Replace the ending e from the

Step 2 name of the alkane with -ol

A number is placed to in front of the

Step 3 ol to indicate which carbon atom
the hydroxyl group is attached to
(b) branched-chain alcohol
Find the longest continuous carbon chain containing
Step 1
the hydroxyl group
Name the longest chain by substituting the ending ol
Step 2
for the e of the corresponding alkane
Number of the carbon atoms in the longest chain
Step 3
beginning at the end nearer to the hydroxyl group
Identify the position of the hydroxul group by writing
Step 4
the number of the carbon atom to which it is attached
in front of the ending -ol
Step 5
Locate and name all attached alkyl group

Step Complete the name for the alcohol molecule by

6 combining the 3 component parts together. Write
the name as a single word
 Industrial production of ethanol

a) Making ethanol by fermentation

C6H12O6 (aq) 2CH3CH2OH (aq) + 2CO2 (g)

Glucose Ethanol

Temperature : 18-20 C
Catalyst : zymase from yeast
Other condition : absence of oxygen
b) Making ethanol by hydration

CH2=CH2 (g) + H2O (g) CH3CH2OH (g)

Ethene Steam Ethanol
(From the cracking of
petroleum fractions)

Temperature : 300 C
Pressure : 60 atm
Catalyst : phosphoric acid
 Completely
miscible
with water Liquid at
Sharp smell
room
conditions
Physical
properties of
ethanol
Low boiling
colourless point
Highly volatile
(easily change
into a gas)
 Oxidation

Chemical
properties of
ethanol

Combustion Dehydration
 Chemical properties of ethanol

a) Combustion

Ethanol burns with a non-smoky blue flame

C2H5OH (l) + 3O2 (g) 2CO2 (g) + 3H2O (l)

Combustion of ethanol releases large amount

Of heat. Ethanol suitable as a fuel
b) Oxidation

CH3CH2OH (l) + 2[O] CH3COOH (l) + H2O (l)

ethanoic acid

oxidising agent: acidified potassium dichromate (VI) solution

( colour change from orange to green)
acidified potassium manganate (VII) solution
( colour change from purple to colourless)
c) Dehydration

txt bk pg 64

module pg 72
2 methods to carry out a dehydration of ethanol

(a) Ethanol vapour is passed over a heated catalyst such as

unglazed porcelain chips, porous pot, pumice stone or
aluminium oxide

(a) Ethanol is heated under reflux at 170 C with excess

concentrated sulphuric acid
Uses of alcohols
(a) As a solvent -perfumes, cosmetics
-thinners for lacquers, varnishers

(a) as a fuel - a mixture of petrolwith 10-20 % ethanol (gasohol)

- methanol (as a fuel for racing cars)

(a) As a source of chemicals

- as a raw material in the manufacture of
polymers, fibres, explosives and plastics
- ethanol ethanoic acid (vinegar)

(a) As a source of medicinal products

- ethanol- as a solvent in the preparation of
cough syrups
- propan-2-ol as a rubbing alcohol (bring down high
fever)
 E: CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
General Formula : CnH2n+1COOH ,n=0,1,2
Functional Group : -COOH (carboxyl group)
Naming carboxylic acids
Find the longest continuous carbon chain containing the carboxyl
group

Name this longest chain by replacing the ending e of the

corresponding alkane with oic acid

Number the carbon atoms in this longest chain beginning at the

carboxyl group

Locate and name the attached alkyl group

Complete the name for the carboxylic acid molecule by combining

the 2 component parts together
Making ethanoic acid

- oxidation of ethanol by refluxing ethanol with

an oxidising agent such as acidified potassiun
dichromate (VI) solution or acidified
potassium manganate (VII) solution
Refluxing : prevent the loss of a volatile liquid by
vaporisation
Ethanoic acid formed is removed by fractional
distillation
 Very soluble in
water

Physical
properties
of ethanoic
acid

Colourless
Sour smell like liquid at room
vinegar conditions
Chemical properties of ethanoic acid
(a) Acid properties- ethanoic acid is a weak monoprotic
acid

CH3COOH (aq) CH3COO (aq) + H (aq)

Ethanoic acid Ethanoate ion

(b) Reactions with metals

2CH3COOH (aq) + Zn(s) Zn(CH3COO)2 (aq) + H2 (g)

(c) Reactions with base

2CH3COOH (aq) + CuO(s) Cu(CH3COO)2 (aq) + H2O (l)
(d) Reactions with carbonate

2CH3COOH (aq) + CaCO3(s) Ca(CH3COO)2 (aq) + CO2(g)+ H2O (l)

(e) Reactions with alcohols (esterification)

 Chemical reactions of other carboxylic acid

Carboxylic acid + reactive metal carboxylate salt + hydrogen

Carboxylic acid + base carboxylate salt + water
Carboxylic acid + metal carbonate carboxylate salt + CO2 + H2O
Carboxylic acid +alcohol ester + water
Uses of carboxylic acids

Ethanoic acid As food flavouring

(acetic acid) As preservative

Methanoic acid
Coagulate latex
(formic acid)

Benzoic acid As preservative in foods

 G: ESTERS
General Formula : CnH2n+1COOCmH2m+1 ,n=0,1,2
m=1,2,3

Functional Group : -COO (carboxylate group)

Naming esters
pg 77

The name of an ester consists of 2 separate words. The alcohol part

is named fist followed by the acid part

Identify and name the alcohol part of the ester (alkyl group)
Identify and name the acid part of the ester
(change oic acid to oate)
Combine the both parts to obtain the name of the ester
Formation of esters

Esters are produced by an esterification reaction

(carboxylic acid reacts with alcohol in the presence
of concentrated sulphuric acid as a catalyst)

Example :
H2SO4
HCOOH + CH3OH HCOOCH3 + H2O

methanoic acid methyl methanoate

 Low density,
less dense
than water

Colourless
Very volatile
liquid at room
temperature Physical
properties of
esters

Insoluble in
Sweet smell water
Use of esters
Used in the
preparation of
cosmetics and
perfumes
As artificial flavour
in processed food
and drinks
Used in the production of
polyester (synthetic
fibers for makng textiles)

Most are found naturally in

fruits and flowers(Their
fragrance are due to the
presence of esters)
 H: FATS
Fats found in animals are solids at room
temperature. Eg: butter

Fats from plants are liquids. oils

Fats and oils are esters (fatty acids + glycerol)

Fatty acids containing 12-18 Carbon atoms per

molecule
 Source of
energy

The
Thermal importance of Source of
insulation oils and fats nutrients

protection
Saturated and unsaturated fats
Saturated fats

Fats which contain esters of glycerols and saturated

fatty acids
saturated fatty acids :
has all carbon atoms joined together by
carbon-carbon single bond
 Unsaturated fats

Fats which contain esters of glycerols and

unsaturated fatty acids
Unsaturated fatty acids:
carbon chain has one or more carbon-
carbon double bond
Converting unsaturated fats into saturated fats
By a process called catalytic hydrogenation
( by bubbling hydrogen gas through hot liquid oil)

catalyst : nickel
temperature : 200oC
pressure : 4atm

Module 88
Effects of fats on health

obesity

Plant or vegetable oil do not contain

cholesterol: not cause cardiovascular
problems

Saturated fats raise the level of cholesterol:

the flow of the blood in the arteries might be
blocked and lead to heart attack and stroke
Extraction process of palm oil
 Rich in Vitamin
E(powerful
antioxidant)

Advantages
of palm oil

Rich in beta-
Cholesterol free carotene which
contains Vitamin E
 I : NATURAL RUBBER
Natural polymers are polymers that exist in
nature and not man-made
Natural polymer Monomer
Protein Amino acid
Carbohydrate Glucose
Natural rubber Isoprene
Natural rubber
Monomer: isoprene (2-methylbut-1,3-diene)

Nota pg 38
Coagulation process of latex

Each rubber particle is made up of rubber polymers covered

by a layer of protein membrane

Negative charges are found on the surface of the membrane,

making each rubber particle negatively charged. The
negatively charged rubber particles repel each other,
preventing themselves from combining and coagulating
 When acid is added to latex:
Hydrogen ion from the acid nautralise the negative charges
on the surface of the membrane. A neutral rubber particle is
formed.

When these neutral particles collide with each other, their

outer membrane layers break up. The rubber polymers are
set free.

The rubber polymers start to coagulate by combining

together
Bacteria from the air attack the protein on the membrane to
produce lactic acid

Alkalis such as ammonia solution are added to latex to prevent

coagulation

The hydroxide ions from alkali neutralise hydrogen ions

produced by lactic acid as aresult of bacterial attack on protein

Bcause there are no hydrogen ions to neutralise the negative

charges on the rubber particles, they remain negatively charged
and hence cannot combine and coagulate
 Insoluble in
water

Properties of
Unstable to natural Unstable to
oxidation rubber heat

elastic
Vulcanization
a process whereby rubber is reacted with
sulphur to improve the properties of natural
rubber
Sulphur is heated together with natural
rubber
Rubber stripe is soaked in sulphur
monochloride solution in methylbenzene for a
few hours, then dried