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CARBOHYDRATES

Nurfatin Diyana Nordin

R. Neashanthi
S. Theebaa
Majdina Sarah Nabilah bt Mansor
ntroduction

= German first introduced the word

µkohlenhydrates¶ which was later on coined to
carbohydrates
= defined as a group of compound composed of
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
= first complex organic compounds formed in the
plants as a result of photosynthesis
= Also defined as organic polyhydroxy carbonyl
compounds with universal occurrence in living
organisms
= storage and transport of energy and also building
blocks of cell wall
= classified in two main categories on the basis of their
molecular size such as simple saccharides (Tru
= Low molecular weight carbohydrates are crystalline,
soluble in water and sweet in taste; e.g. glucose,
fructose and sucrose sugars) and polysaccharides
(Non sugars)
= high molecular weight carbohydrates are
amorphous, tasteless and relatively less soluble in
water; starch, cellulose, gums, pectins, insulin
c

=
arbohydrates are produced by green plants
through a process known as photosynthesis.
= In photosynthesis, a pigment called chlorophyll in
the leaves of plants absorbs light energy from the
Sun.
= Plants use this light energy to convert water and
carbon dioxide from the environment into glucose
and oxygen.
= Some glucose is used to form the more complex
carbohydrate cellulose, the main structural
component of plant cell walls. Some is used to
provide immediate energy to plant cells. The rest is
changed to a different chemical form, usually starch,
and stored in seeds, roots, or fruits for later use.
= The carbohydrates produced by plants are an
important source of energy for animals.
= When animals eat plants, energy stored in
carbohydrates is released in the process of
respiration, a chemical reaction between
glucose and oxygen to produce energy (for cell
work), carbon dioxide, and water.
= Glucose is also used by animal cells in the
production of other substances needed for
growth.
Types of carbohydrates

= Ronosaccharides
= Bioses: they contain two carbon atoms. They do
not free in nature.
= Trioses: contain three carbon atoms, but in the
form of phosphoric esters for example
glyceraldehydes.
= Tetroses (

 ): contain four carbon atoms,
for example, erythrose
= Pentoses: contain five carbon atoms and very
common in plants and are the products of
hydrolysis of polysaccharides like
hemicelluloses, mucilage and gums, for
example: arabinose, ribose and xylose.
=
exoses: containing six carbon atoms and are
abundantly available carbohydrates of plant
kingdom. Divided into two types aldoses and
ketoses. They may be obtained by the hydrolysis
of polysaccharides like starch, inulin, etc
=
eptose: they contain seven carbon atoms,
vitally important in the photosynthesis of plant
and glucose metabolism of animals and are
rarely found accumulated in plants. Eg:
glucoheptose and mannoheptose
Disaccharides
= A disaccharide is the carbohydrate formed when
two monosaccharides undergo a condensation
reaction which involves the elimination of a small
molecule, such as water, from the functional
groups only.
Trisaccharides
= A carbohydrate that yields three
monosaccharides upon hydrolysis. For example,
Raffinose, found in molasses contains the three
hexose's; glucose, fructose and galactose, while
maltotriose, an intermediate product of starch
digestion contains three glucose units.
= Tetrasaccharides
= Stachyose, a tetrasaccharides yields on
hydrolysis, four molecules of monosaccharide.
The picture shows addition of monosaccharides
to form other saccharides.
ºolysaccharides
= Indefinite number of monosaccharides on
hydrolysis, vice versa by condensation, with
elimination of water, polysaccharides are
produced from monosaccharides.
= classified into two broad heads, namely
homoglycan and heteroglycan
= that plant kingdom provides a variety of complex
polysaccharides such as cellulose, starch,
dextran, inulin etc.
= applications of the starch and sugars is not only
as food or food supplements, but also as
indispensable adjuvants in the formulation of a
wide range of pharmaceutical products all over
the globe
Homoglycan

= A large number of plant product that belonging to

this group are namely: honey, starch, hetastarch,
inulin, lichenin, dextran, cyclodextrins, cellulose,
cotton, and dextrin.
=
oney: a viscid sweet secretion stored in the
honey comb. Roughly, honey consist of
moisture, Dextrose, Levulose (fructose), dextrin,
sucrose,and gums.
= Starch: it comprises of mostly polysaccharide
granules usually separated from the fully grown
grains of
orn (r

 Linn) family


and also from the tubers from Potato
(

  
 Linn.) family




= made up of two complex polysaccharides, namely
amylopectin (Į-Amylose) and Amylose (ȕ-
Amylose)
=
etastarch: it is a semisynthetic material that
essentially comprises of more than 90%
amylopectin.
= Inulin:
= close resemblance to starch except that it is a
levulan rather than dextran
= characteristic that make it different from starch
such as, gives yellow colorization by iodine, does
not gelatinize with water
= occurs in certain plant of the



family
such as 
   Linn, 




 Linn.,



 Linn

  Linn, 



Linn
= Lichenin: aka moss starch. It is cellulose like
polysaccharide which occurs as a cell wall
component in lichens.
= It is readily soluble in hot water to give rise to a
colloidal solution. It is more rapidly hydrolyzed
than cellulose
= can be found in Iceland Ross (




)
family 
 
 







=
ellulose:
= represents one of the most widely distributed and
abundantly available organic matter in this planet.
= the most important structural element of higher plant cell
walls. In nature, wood ( 0-50% cellulose) caters as the
major source of cellulose for industrial utilities, whereas
cotton (9% cellulose) provides the balance requirement
globally.
Heteroglycans

= Generally, Gums represent a heterogenous

group of acidic substances that essentially
possess in common the characteristic property of
swelling in water to form either gels or viscous,
sticky solutions
= been advocated that gums are resulting products
obtained from normal plant metabolism.
= gums may have been produced from starch or
cellulose through hydrolysis, followed by
oxidation to uronic acid and finally undergoing
the process of esterification or formation of salt
accordingly
= classified in four different groups that are
Exudate Gums, Seed Gums, Rarine Gums, and
Ricrobial Gums
Exudates Gums

= plants which grow in a semiarid environment

generate exudates gums in sufficient amount to
helps to seal of the cracked wound thereby
preventing dehydration of plant
= Acacia, Tragacanth and Karaya Gum are
Exudate Gum that applied in pharmaceutical aid
= Acacia: According to the USP, acacia is the dried
gummy exudation from the stems and branches
of !

  
(L.), family  


!

  

= Tragacanth: It is dried gummy exudation from
! 

   Labill. (white gavan) or
other Asiatic species of ! 

 belonging to
the family of  


= Karaya Gum: is the dried exudate of the tree

  Roxb; 


Roxb;




 
Lindley and other species
of 
belonging to the family:



= ! 

   
  Roxb
Seed Gums

= hydrocolloids contained in some seed embryos

where they actually play the role as
polysaccharide food reserves
= Plantago Seed: it is dried ripe seeds of 



 L. or 



 

Waldst & Kit or
of 



 
 belonging to the
family: 




= 



= Pectin: polysaccharides found in nature in the
primary cell walls of all seed bearing plants and
located in the middle lamella.
= function in combination with both cellulose and
hemicelluloses as an intercellular cementing
substance
= sources -lemon or orange rind which contains
about 30% of these polysaccharides.
=
 
 (or Lemon) and
 

 
belonging to the family 

r from apple
pomace 
    Rill.
=
 
 
   
= Locust Bean Gum: the Gum essentially consist of
the hydrocolloid from the powdered endosperm
of tree pods of


 
Linn, belonging
to the family  


= Guar Gum: is the ground endosperms of



 



 (L.) Taub; belonging
to family  


Marine Gums

= algae and seaweeds comprise of 
 

as components of cell walls and membranes or
present in the intracellular regions where they
actually serve as reserve food material.
= Algin: it is a gelling polysaccharide extracted
from the giant brown seaweed (
 ! 


   
(L.) Ag.,  


) or
from 

! "




(L.)






#.


   

= Agar: dried hydrophilic colloidal polysaccharide
complex extracted from the agarocytes of algae
belonging to the class 



= also obtained as the dried gelatinous substance
from  

 belonging to the family
 

and several other species of red
algae, such as 


(family: 



)
and  


" 

#
=  

 



=
arrageenan: it refers to closely associated
hydrocolloids which are obtained from different
red algae or seaweeds.
= The most important sources of carrageenan are
namely:

  (Linn.) stockhouse and

 



(Goodnough and
Woodward) J. Agardh belonging to the family

 


=