MESIN MESIN LISTRIK

Dr. Heri Suryoatmojo, ST, MT

Electrical Engineering Department
Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember Surabaya

1
 References

Electric Machinery Fundamentals

Stephen J. Chapman

Electric Machines
by I J Nagrath & D P Kothari

2
 Review on Three Phase System

App_A_Three_Phase_Circuits.pdf

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INTRODUCTION

Electric Machines mechanical energy to electric energy or vice versa

Mechanical energy Electric energy : GENERATOR
Electric energy mechanical energy : MOTOR

Almost all practical motors and generators convert energy from one form to another
through the action of a magnetic field.

When we talk about machines, another related device is the transformer. A transformer is
a device that converts ac electric energy at one voltage level to ac electric energy at
another voltage level.

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INTRODUCTION

Why are electric motors and generators so common?

- electric power is a clean and efficient energy source that is very easy to transmit over
long distances and easy to control.
- Does not require constant ventilation and fuel (compare to internal-combustion engine),
free from pollutant associated with combustion

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MAGNETIC INTENSITY
Magnetic field intensity produced by current

(A/m)

The magnetic field intensity H is in a sense a measure of the "effort" that a

current is putting into the establishment of a magnetic field.
The strength of the magnetic field flux produced in the core also depends on the
material of the core.

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FLUX DENSITY
Magnetic Field Intensity Magnetic Flux Density

(Wb/m2 or Tesla)

Relative permeability

Free space permeability

The higher the , more flux is established by the same amount of current

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TOTAL FLUX

(Wb)

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MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

Reluctance

Magnetomotive force (mmf)

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MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

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MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
Consideration in Total Magnetic Flux calculation:
1. Leakage flux
2. Geometrical of core material e.g. corner path
3. Non-linearity (saturation) in core material
4. Fringing effect

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EXAMPLE
Figure below shows a simplified rotor and stator for a dc motor. The mean path length of
the stator is 50 cm, and its cross-sectional area is 12 cm2. The mean path length of the
rotor is 5 cm, and its cross-sectional area also may be assruned to be 12 cm2. Each air
gap between the rotor and the stator is 0.05 cm wide, and the cross-sectional area of each
air gap (including fringing) is 14 cm2. The iron of the core has a relative permeability of
2000 and there are 200 turns of wire on the core. If the current in the wire is adjusted to be
1 A, what will the resulting flux density in the air gaps be?

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14
 Reluctance of Stator:

Reluctance of Rotor: Reluctance of Air-gap:

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Equivalent Reluctance:

Net mmf:

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 Total Flux:

Flux Density:

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MAGNETICALLY COUPLED CIRCUITS

Linking flux (each coil): In linear magnetic system:

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MAGNETICALLY COUPLED CIRCUITS

Flux linkages:

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MAGNETICALLY COUPLED CIRCUITS

Self Inductances: Mutual Inductances:

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MAGNETICALLY COUPLED CIRCUITS

Flux linkages expressed as inductances and currents:

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MAGNETICALLY COUPLED CIRCUITS

Referring parameters in coil 2 to coil 1:

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MAGNETICALLY COUPLED CIRCUITS

Voltage equations:

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COMPUTER SIMULATION OF COUPLED CIRCUITS

From flux linkages equation:

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COMPUTER SIMULATION OF COUPLED CIRCUITS

Substituting current equations into voltage equations:

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COMPUTER SIMULATION OF COUPLED CIRCUITS

Substituting current equations into m equations:

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COMPUTER SIMULATION OF COUPLED CIRCUITS

Implementation using numerical integral:

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Homework I

Using numerical integral function in Simulink Matlab, create

dynamic model of single phase transformer for parameters as
follows:

r1 = 12
Ll1 = 27.1 mH
r2 = 10
Ll2 = 27.1 mH
Lm1 = 262.9 mH

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Homework II

Using State-Space block provided in Simulink Matlab, create

dynamic model of single phase transformer for parameters as
follows:

r1 = 12
Ll1 = 27.1 mH
r2 = 10
Ll2 = 27.1 mH
Lm1 = 262.9 mH

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SATURATION IN MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

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TRANSFORMER

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TRANSFORMER CONSTRUCTION

Core-form Shell-form
type type

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 IDEAL TRANSFORMER

Voltage & current equations of ideal transformer

Power in an ideal transformer

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Impedance transformation of ideal transformer

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 OPERATION OF REAL TRANSFORMER

No-load operation

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No-load current:

1.Magnetization current, im which is the current required to produce

the flux in the transformer core.

2.Core-loss current, ih+e , which is the current required to make up for

hysteresis and eddy current losses

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Magnetizing Current:

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Magnetizing Current:

1. The magnetization current in the transformer is not sinusoidal.

2. Once the peak flux reaches the saturation point in the core, a small
increase in peak flux requires a very large increase in the peak
magnetization current.

3. The fundamental component of the magnetization current lags the

voltage applied to the core by 90.

4. The higher-frequency components in the magnetization current, the

larger the harmonic components will become.

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Core-loss Current:
1. The core- loss current is nonlinear because of the nonlinear effects of
hysteresis.
2. The fundamental component of the core- loss current is in phase with the
voltage applied to the core

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Hysteresis Curve of Transformer

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Equivalent Circuit of a Real Transformer

Copper losses
Eddy current losses
Hysteresis losses
Leakage flux

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Approximate Equivalent Circuit of a Real Transformer

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Simplified Equivalent Circuit of a Real Transformer

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 Determining the Parameter of a Real Transformer

Open-circuit Test:
1. Determining the value of xm
2. Determining the value of rc

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 Determining the Parameter of a Real Transformer

Open-circuit Test

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 Determining the Parameter of a Real Transformer

Short-circuit Test:
1. Determining the value of re
2. Determining the value of xe

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 Determining the Parameter of a Real Transformer

Short-circuit Test

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 POC

a. Find equivalent circuit of transformer referred to HIGH voltage side.

b. Calculate the full-load voltage regulation at 0.8 lagging pf.
c. Calculate the losses of transformer at point b.

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 Voltage Regulation of Transformer

Full-load voltage regulation (VR):

Keyword to calculate VR: VOLTAGE DROP

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 POC

Find equivalent circuit of transformer referred to LOW voltage side !

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Phasor Diagram of Transformer

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Phasor Diagram of Transformer

Inductive Load

Resistive Load

Capacitive Load

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Efficiency of Transformer
Three types of losses present in transformers:
1. Copper (PR) losses. These losses are accounted for by the series
resistance in the equivalent circuit.
2. Hysteresis losses.
3. Eddy current losses

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Autotransformer
Series
Winding

Conventional transformer Autotransformer

Common
Winding

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Autotransformer

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Autotransformer

1. Used in which voltage rating between primary & secondary windings

are close.
2. No electrical isolation between primary and secondary windings
3. Less magnetic material required to build the core for the same kVA
4. Step up or step down connection are possible

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Step-up & Step-down Autotransformer

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Voltage & Current in Autotransformer

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Voltage & Current in Autotransformer

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Power Rating in Autotransformer

Sout
Sin

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 Power Rating in Autotransformer

Eliminate IH from equation using

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Polarity of Transformer

Jumper for test

Subtractive Polarity
E = E1 E2

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Polarity of Transformer

Jumper for test

Additive Polarity
E = E1 + E2

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THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

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 Three Phase Transformer Implementation

3 X Single phase 1 X Three phase

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Type of Three Phase Transformer

Core Type

Shell Type

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Transformer Connections

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Y-Y Connected Transformer

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Voltage Diagram

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Problem with Y-Y Connected Transformer

If loads on the transformer circuit are unbalanced, then the

voltages on the phases of the transformer can become severely
unbalanced.
Third-harmonic voltages can be large.

Solution
Solidly ground the neutrals of the transformer
Add third (tertiary winding) connected in delta to the transformer

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Y-D Connected Transformer

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Voltage Diagram

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Characteristics of Y-D Connected Transformer

Third harmonic circulates in the Delta side, has no problem with

third harmonic.
Provide more stable voltage in unbalance load operation
Secondary voltage shifted by 30 (lagging) from its primary
voltage

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D-Y Connected Transformer

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Voltage Diagram

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D-D Connected Transformer

Has no problem with phase shifting, unbalance and third

harmonic

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Voltage Diagram

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Parallel Operation of Transformer

Why operating two/or more transformers in parallel?

Load outgrows the capacity of transformer

More economical rather than replacing with single
larger unit
Reliability concern

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Paralleling Transformer

How to operate two/or more transformers in parallel?

Transformers must be connected properly according to their polarities fault

similar to short circuit
Transformers must have zero relative phase displacement on the secondary
sides and must be connected in a proper phase sequence circulating current,
fault
Transformers must have equal voltage ratio to avoid no-load circulating
current more copper loss
Their unit impedance (base on MVA rating) must be equal or the disparity
must be limited not proportionally loaded

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Load Division in Paralleling Transformer

Transformer is to be proportionally loaded if:

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Example

A 600-kVA, single phase transformer with 0.012 pu resistance and 0.06 pu

reactance is connected in parallel with a 300-kVA transformer with 0.014 pu
resistance and 0.045 pu reactance. These two transformer shares 800-kVA load
at 0.8 pf lagging. Find how they share the load when both secondary voltages
are 440 Volt.

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Unequal Voltage Ratio

If Vnls are inequal

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Maximum Efficiency

Maximum efficiency is achieved when copper losses equals the core losses

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Maximum Efficiency

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Example

Test result of 20 kVA transformer are given as:

Voltage (V) Current (A) Power (W)

OC test 200 4 120
SC test 60 10 300

a. Calculate the efficiency of the transformer when fully loaded at pf 0.8

lagging.
b. Calculate maximum efficiency and loading of the transformer at pf
above.

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All-day Efficiency

Core losses are constant independent of the load

All-day efficiency depends on how the transformers are

loaded in 24-hours

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Example

A transformer has its maximum efficiency of 98% when operating at 15 kVA

with unity power factor. Compare its all-day efficiency for the following load
cycles:
a. Full load 20 kVA of 12 hrs/day and no-load for the rest of the day
b. Full load 20 kVA of 4 hrs/day and 0.4 full load for the rest of the day

Assume the transformer operates at unity power factor all the day.

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Three Winding Transformer

Purpose tertiary winding

To supply substation auxiliaries at different from primary or secondary voltage
Static or rotating compensator may be connected for reactive power injection
Stabilisation for unbalance load
Third harmonic voltage reduction
Measurement or testing point

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Three Phase Supply from Two Transformers

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Open Delta Connection
Three phase source Three phase load

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Open Delta Connection

X X
X X

X
X X
X

One transformer is consuming reactive power

+ while the other is generating.

Limits active power capability by 0.577

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 POC

a. Find equivalent circuit of transformer referred to high voltage side.

b. Calculate the full-load voltage regulation at 0.8 lagging pf.
c. Calculate the losses of transformer at point b.

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PRINCIPLES OF ROTATING AC MACHINES

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A Rotating Loop in Uniform Magnetic Field

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 A Rotating Loop in Uniform Magnetic Field

max = total flux through the area of loop = A B

B = flux density
A = surface area constructed by loop

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Rotating Magnetic Field

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Rotating Magnetic Field

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Rotating Magnetic Field

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Rotating Magnetic Field

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Rotating Magnetic Field

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Simulation of Rotating Magnetic Field

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Two Pole Stator Machine

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Four Pole Stator Machine

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MMF & FLUX DISTRIBUTION

To produce a sinusoidal voltage in a machine, the magnitude of the flux

density must vary in a sinusoidal manner along the surface of the air gap

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Sinusoidally Distributed Stator Winding

Distribute the turns of the winding that produces the mmf in closely spaced
slots around the surface of the machine and to vary the number of
conductors in each slot in a sinusoidal manner

Actual mmf

Fundamental mmf

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Pole Pitch
Pole pitch is angular distance between adjacent poles on a machine.

In mechanical degrees:

P = number of poles

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 Full-Pitch Coil

Coil-pitch in electrical degrees:

If m = p full-pitch coil

m = mechanical degree covered by coil

Two pole machine with p =180 degrees. Coil

is stretched equal to 180 degree.
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 Fractional-Pitch Coil Coil-pitch in electrical degrees:

m mechanical degree covered by coil

If m < p fractional-pitch coil

For machines with more than

two pole:

Two pole machine with p =180 degrees. Coil

is stretched less than 180 degree.

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Induced Voltage in Fractional-Pitch Coil

Flux density around rotor at any point of :

Flux density around stator at any point of :

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Induced Voltage in Fractional-Pitch Coil

Segment a-b:

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Induced Voltage in Fractional-Pitch Coil

Segment c-d:

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Induced Voltage in Fractional-Pitch Coil

Segment b-c:

Segment d-a:

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Induced Voltage in Fractional-Pitch Coil

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Induced Voltage in Fractional-Pitch Coil

Full-pitch:

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 Induced Voltage in Fractional-Pitch Coil

Defined Pitch factor: in electrical degree

If coil has N-turn, induced voltage becomes:

For machine with more than two poles:

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Harmonics and Fractional-Pitch Windings

Reluctance is much lower under the center of rotor than the one toward the
sides
Flux density is concentrated at the air-gap which has lower reluctance

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Harmonics and Fractional-Pitch Windings

Pitch factor due to fundamental & harmonic components

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Harmonics and Fractional-Pitch Windings

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Harmonics and Fractional-Pitch Windings

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Winding of Practical Machines
Full-pitch coils

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Winding of Practical Machines

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Winding of Practical Machines
Fractional-pitch coils

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Distribution Factor of Practical Winding

Coils are distributed in slots divided in

phase groups.
In one phase group, coils generate induced
voltage at different phase according to slot
pitch .

For example, = 20

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Induced Voltage of Distributed Winding

If coils were concentrated in one slot, total voltage should be 3E

instead of 2.879E.

Reduction of induced voltage in stator winding

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Effect of Distribution Factor on Induced Voltage

Distribution Factor, kd

Distribution factor for a winding with n-slots per-phase group spaced by

is:

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Effect of Distribution Factor on Induced Voltage

Volt-rms

NP = total number of turn in coils = NC x number of coil

NC = number of conductor of a single coil
kw = winding factor, combination of pitch factor and distribution factor

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