E

Summary of last lecture

Main properties of semiconductors
can be described by values of k
bandgap and effective mass G
Heterojunctions can be formed by
epitaxial growth of different
semiconductors
They can result in spatial
confinement strong enough to split
band into subbands

E3
E 2D
E0 Ei

2 k x2 k y2 E1
E2
i , kx , ky
2m z k||
 This lecture:
Look at more complicated heterostructures
Quantum wells (or films)
Quantum wires
Quantum boxes (or dots)
Reminder of last weeks Homework:
Revise Density of States for 3D system (see level 2
semiconductors 2SP, level 3 Physics of Stars 3PS
etc)
Find out Density of states for 2D, 1D and 0D system.
Bring drawings and formulas to lecture
 Species of Heterostructures
GaAs
InP
Type I Type II
e- and h+
AlxGa1-xAs e- and h+ InAlAs
confined in
confined in
same
different
material
materials
InGaAs
InAs
Type III
Type I
e- and h+
spontaneously GaSb
InP
created at
interface

Alignment can be described by valence band offset.

Which species depends on bandgaps and
sign and size of valence band offset
 Material Parameters for AlxGa1-xAs
Lattice constant
a = 5.6533+0.0067x (Angstroms)
direct if x<0.45
Bandgap Direct Indirect
EG = 1.424+1.247x (eV)
Valence band discontinuity:
Ev = - 0.46x (eV)
Conduction band discontinuity:
Ec = 0.79x (eV)

Effective electron mass

me*/m0 = 0.0637+0.083x
Effective hole masses 0 0.45 1
mhh*/m0 = 0.50+0.29x
mlh*/m0 = 0.087+0.063x x

See http://www.ioffe.rssi.ru/SVA/NSM/Semicond/ for other

parameters and other semiconductors
Semiconductor quantum wells
 Infinite quantum wells
2 d 2 Motion in x-y plane is free
2
V ( z ) ( z ) E( z )
2m dz
2 2 E xy

2 k x2 k y2
d 2m
2
( z ) En ( z )
2m dz (z) 2(z)
( z ) A sin kn z E
E
10 n=3 10
E3
kn n
L
2 k n2 5 C
n=2 5 E2
En n=1
2m E1
0 0
E E0 En E xy
0 z/L 1 0 1 k||

Q: Estimate lowest energy transition for

GaAs/AlGaAs well, 10nm wide,
Eg = 1.424eV, m*c = 0.067
 Finite barrier QW
Solution to Schrodinger in 1D
In well: sum of forward and backward travelling waves
In barrier: sum of increasing and decaying evanescent waves

Aw exp( ik w z )
Ab exp( kb z ) Bb exp( kb z )
Bw exp( ik w z )
Vb

E
0
-d/2 0 d/2

k 2 2 2 kb2
E w E *
Vb
2m
2m
 Parity
Symmetry of well means solutions have
definite parity
Even parity

Aw Bw Ab Bb

Odd parity
Aw Bw Ab Bb
 Boundary conditions
Continuity of
2 A cos( 1
2 kwd )
Ab exp( 2 kb d )
1 w
1
w
2 A sin( 2 kwd )

Continuity of d/dz (particle current)

2 A k sin( 1
2 kwd )
kb Ab exp( 2 kb d )
1 w w
1
w w
2 A k cos( 2 kwd )

Divide: k w tan( 12 k w d )
kb

wk cot( 1
2 kwd )
 Graphical solution

k 2 2
k 2 2 k w tan( 12 k w d )
E Vb b w kb
2m
2m
wk cot( 1
2 kwd )

mVb d 2 x tan( x)
x 2
y 2 y
2 2 x cot( x)

Equation of a circle
Solve these equations
graphically (or numerically)

x 12 k w d , y 12 kb d
 Example
GaAs/Al0.3Ga0.7As
d = 10 nm
Conduction band: Vb = 0.3 eV, mw*= 0.067me
Show that the lowest conduction state is
E1 ~ 31.5 meV
Find a better approximation using Newton-
Raphson method
 Further refinements to infinite
barrier model
m* discontinuities:
if masses in well and barriers differ this must be taken into
account when matching wavefunction at boundaries
Homework: find new solution if m*w m*b, and the
new B.C. is continuity of (1/m*) d/dz
non-parabolicity:
we neglected terms in the energy higher than k2 but they are
important at high energy. Including these is like having an
effective mass that increases with energy. This usually requires
computer iteration of the wavefunction solutions
multiple bands:
in the valence band there are typically two hole bands (light and
heavy) that must be considered. They anti-cross if they overlap.
strained wells:
strain will shift bands (e.g. split the light and heavy hole bands)
Optical transitions in Quantum Well

Normal incidence means light polarised in x-y plane

Parity selection rule for symmetric wells: Dn = 0

Q: Estimate (infinite approx) lowest energy transition

for GaAs/AlGaAs well, 10nm wide,
Eg = 1.424eV, m*c = 0.067, m*v = 0.4
 Experimental absorption in GaAs wells

Excitonic effects enhanced in quantum wells

Pure 2-D: RX2D = 4 RX3D h+
Typical GaAs quantum well: RX ~ 10 meV ~ 2.5 RX
(bulk GaAs)
Splitting of heavy and light hole transitions (different
mass) e-
 Quantum confined Stark Effect
Absorption spectrum can
be controlled with electric
field
Red shift of excitons
Excitons stable to high
fields
Parity selection rule
broken
used to make modulators

Energy (eV)
Luminescence Emission
In QW, emission energy is
shifted from Eg to (Eg + Ee1
+ Ehh1)
Tune by changing d
Brighter than bulk due to
improved electron-hole
overlap
Used in laser diodes and
LEDs
Homework: using peak
energy, well thickness
Eg = 2.55eV (10K) and quoted Eg, estimate
Eg = 2.45eV (300K) electron effective mass
in well
 Intersubband transitions
Need z polarized light n-type quantum well
Parity selection rule:
n = odd number
Q: Show that transition energy
~ 0.1 eV (~ 10 m, infrared)
for GaAs well with typical width
Absorption used for infrared
detectors
Emission used for infrared lasers
(Quantum cascade lasers)
 Double barrier resonant tunnelling diode

A device with
unusual
resistance ,
whose
differential is
negative
Useful for
oscillators etc
 From wells to wires and dots
By engineering By self-assembly
Lithography + etching Colloidal quantum dots
Cleaved-edge Epitaxial quantum dots
overgrowth
Confinement induced
by
electrostatics (gate)
STM tip, ..
strain
E-beam Lithography and Dry
Etching
e

4) Lift-off

1) E-beam patterning of PMMA

5) Plasma etching

2) Development of PMMA

6) Removal of mask

3) Deposition of mask
 Quantum wires:
Electrical confinement

1DEG = one-dimensional electron gas

 E-beam Lithography and Dry
Etching

Ref: K. Tai, T. R Hayes, S.L. McCall, T.W. Tsang, Appl. Phys. Lett. 53, 302 (1988)

- Single nanometer scale resolution: NO

- Patterning of large areas: NO
- Structure uniformity: Limited
- High crystalline quality: NO
- Compatible with established technologies: Limited

Ref: Maile et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 1552 (1989)

 Quantum wires:
cleaved edge overgrowth
 V-groove epitaxial Wires

1) Photolithography of mask

Ref: Dr. Marius Grundmann Int. J. of Nonlin. Opt. Phys. and Mat. 4, 99 (1995)
2) Anisotropic etching of groove

3) Growth of QWR material

4) Capping of wire
QDs: alternatives to etching
Selective Epitaxy Precipitate in Glass Matrix

Ref: Dr. Marius Grundmann (http://sol.physik.tu-berlin.de)

Aerosol Synthesis Colloid Nanocrystals

Quantum Dots and the Wetting layer
QDs WL

UHV-STM cross sections

PM Koenraad, TU Eindhoven
 Quantum Confinement in 3D
(or 0D of freedom)
For 3D infinite potential boxes
( x, y, z ) ~ sin( nLxx ) sin( mLyy ) sin( qLzz ), n, m, q integer
q 2h2
Energy levels n2h2
8 mLx 2
m2h 2
8 mLy 2
8mL 2
z

Complications: as for QWs, plus

Confinement is not rectangular, smooth profile (x,y,z not
separable
Spherical confinement, harmonic oscillator potential
Only a single electron
Capacitance of small sphere is very small
Consequences of QD discrete DoS
emission
absorption
linewidth indep of T

CdS QDs
versus size at
4.2K
Colloidal (chemically synthesised) QDs
CdSe dots
 Homework
What is capacitance of CdS sphere of
radius 1nm?
What is the energy of the first excited
state?
What is the charging energy for a
single electron?
[Dielectric constant = 8.9, refractive
index =2.5, Energy gap =2.42 eV,
effective mass 0.21 me]