6626518

International Atomic Energy Agency
ASSESSMENT OF OCCUPATIONAL
EXPOSURE DUE TO EXTERNAL
RADIATION SOURCES AND INTAKES
OF RADIONUCLIDES
Personal Dosimeters
Personal Dosimeters - Unit objectives
The objective of this unit is to provide an overview of
personal dosimeters used for occupational radiation
protection. It is intended to provide a review of the
radiation detection mechanisms that are employed,
methods for readout, advantages and limitations of
dosimetry systems, and the radiation types for which
these systems are appropriate. It also provides a
comparison of traditional passive systems and newer
electronic dosimeters.
At the completion of this unit, the student will be able
to understand how dosimetry systems function, and
make informed judgements on dosimetry system
selection.
Personal Dosimeters - Module outline
Introduction
Passive, integrating dosimeters
Photon Dosimetry
Photographic Film
Thermoluminescence
Photoluminescence
Optically Stimulated Luminescence
Beta and Low Energy Photon Dosimetry
Neutron Dosimetry
Nuclear Track Emulsions
Solid State Nuclear Track Detectors
TLD Albedo
Bubble Detectors

Personal Dosimeters - Module outline
Electronic Dosimeters
Introduction
Pocket Dosimeters
Charged fiber (electroscope) pocket
dosimeters
Ion chambers
Commercial Electronic Dosimeters
Geiger Mueller
Silicon Diode
Direct Ion Storage

Introduction

A basic objective of personal dosimetry
Provide a reliable measurement of the operational

quantities,
independent of type, energy and direction of

incidence of the radiation, and
with a prescribed overall accuracy.
No dosimetry system can meet these requirements

without additional information from workplace
monitoring and information about the type of work
involved.

Workplace characteristics dictate
dosimetry needs
Different dosimeters may be required for low

energy x-rays and gamma fields.
Different dosimeter types may be needed for
photons and neutrons.
Complication exists at nuclear power stations,
high energy accelerators, fuel reprocessing
plants, etc., where there is a mixed radiation
hazard.
Beta dosimetry is difficult, particularly in mixed
fields.
Exposure geometry is also important
Workers at different glove boxes (+, +n) are

dealing with sources for exploration or radiography
will primarily have A-P exposure.
Workers at X-ray diagnostic machines are in a
scattered, low photon energy, mostly isotropic
radiation field.
Operators of radiation sources may be exposed
largely from the back: P-A exposure.
Places where collimated beams are in operation can
be characterized by a rotational geometry.

Personal dosimeters can be considered to fall
into five classes.
Photon dosimeters only for Hp(10).

Beta-photon dosimeters giving information on
Hp(0.07) and Hp(10).
Discriminating photon dosimeters that, in addition
to Hp(10), provide some indication of radiation type
and effective energy, and detection of high energy
electrons.
Extremity dosimeters for beta-photon radiation
only giving information on Hp(0.07), and
Neutron dosimeters giving information on Hp(10).
Passive, Integrating Dosimeters

Detection mechanisms for personal dosimeters
Passive, integrating dosimeters

Photographic film
Thermoluminescence
Photoluminescence
Optically stimulated luminescence
Solid state nuclear track detection

A wide range of passive dosimeter designs has
been developed

Photographic Film Dosimetry

Photographic film
Film emulsion is made of AgBr crystals

suspended in a gelatinous medium.
A thin emulsion layer is coated on a plastic base.
Ionizing radiation interacts with emulsion grains to

produce a latent image.
In development, silver ions in the latent image

produce permanent blackening.
Blackening is measured with a densitometer.

Photographic film
Degree of blackening is a function of film type,

developing process, temperature, and radiation
type and energy.
Film has been used to determine personnel
exposure to photons, betas and thermal neutrons.
For personnel monitoring, films are commonly
placed inside suitable holders, or "film badges.
Compensation for energy dependence of the film
dosimeter is achieved either by the use of one or
more filters having different atomic numbers.

Illustration of exposed film showing filter
density pattern
A B C C B A
D D
Film
Package O
E E
A - Plastic filter
B to E - Metallic filters
O - Open window
Film dosimeter with film packet and filters.

Photographic film
One filter is adequate for photons > 0.1 MeV.
Multiple filters (e.g. Cu, plastic and open window)

are used for lower energy photons.
Blackening produced by gamma rays from neutron

capture in a cadmium filter is often used to detect
thermal neutrons.
Type and dose of incident radiation can be

estimated from the ratio of responses behind
different filters.

Film density patterns following exposure to
radiation fields of different qualities
FOG * FILM INVERTED
50 kV X-rays 100 kV X-rays 75 kV X-rays

0.25 mGy 0.25 mGy 1.50 mGy
Film has a strong photon energy dependence
1.5
Normal - 0
Relative sensitivity
1.0 35
80
0.5
Kodak RM
45 0.71 mm Sn
+ 0.31 mm Pb
0
10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000
Photon energy - keV

Photographic film
Optical density does not vary linearly with dose.
At higher doses, a reversal of optical density -

solarization - takes place.
Dose
Linear combination of the responses behind
suitable filters can be used to determine the dose.

Typical photographic film calibration curve
5
Net optical density
4 0.6 Sv/s
0.3 mSv/s 11. Sv/s

3
0.013 Sv/s
1
0
10-1 1 10 102 103 104 105 106
Hp(10) - mSv
Films with different sensitivities extend the
measurable dose range of the film badge
5
Net density
4
A
3
B
2
0
0.1 1 10 102 103 104
Hp(10) - mSv

Photographic film
New calibrations are necessary for each new film

batch, or the developing process changes.
Operational films are often calibrated by using
identical standard films irradiated to known doses
and processing them simultaneously with the
operational dosimeters.
Perform calibrations at doses that cover the full
range for which the dosimeter is used.
Film badges are used for issue periods up to one
month.

For longer periods, fading is a problem
1.0
30% relative humidity
0.8
Relative optical density
0.6
60%
0.4
Kodak RM
80%
0.2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Storage time - weeks

Photographic film
Film can be used in discriminating dosimeters to

give qualitative information in addition to dose.
Film dosimetry can be economical depending upon
the degree of automation adopted.
Film disadvantages include fading and energy
dependence, requiring a complex and expensive
holder.
Film dosimeters can be designed for HP(10) and
HP(0.07), and beta radiation with (Emax) > 0.5 MeV.

Commercial film supply information
Dosimetry suppliers
ICN Dosimetry Service
http://www.dosimetry.com/dx/external/default.html
Double Film Badge
Radiation Detection Company
http://www.radetco.com/film.htm
Landauer, Inc
http://www.landauerinc.com/products.htm
Wrist Film Badge

General product source listing
Health Physics Society Buyers Guide
http://hps.org/aboutthesociety/affiliates/services.html
Exposed Film

Thermoluminescence

Thermoluminescent dosimeters - TLD
The thermoluminescence mechanism is complex,

and each TL phosphor is unique.
After exposure the latent measure of the absorbed

dose is the number of electrons which remain
trapped in the various trapping levels.
TLD readout consists of heating, light detection

and data recording.

TLD heating can be done in a number of ways
Electrical heating with a hot finger
Hot nitrogen gas
Radio frequency heating
Infrared light

Luminescent brightness vs. temperature at a

constant heating rate is called the "glow curve.
A photomultiplier or other light-sensitive device

measures the TL glow emission during readout.
Entire glow curve or the peak brightness is

recorded.
Area under the curve or glow peak brightness is

used as a measure of dose.

Illustration of TLD readout
High
D.C. voltage
amplifier supply
PM
tube
Recorder
Suitable filter
Phosphor material
Heater power
supply

Modeling the TL effect
TLD
The number of
photons emitted is
Gamma rays, proportional to the
X-rays, etc. energy of the ionizing
radiation
Heat
PMT

Simplified thermoluminescent process
Conduction band
Electron
Thermal
E
T release
T T
Ionization
L L L
Light
Hole
Valence band
a) Irradiation b) Storage c) Heating

Time-temperature profile (TTP)
Anneal temp.
Max. temp.
Temperature C
Max. temp.
ramp rate
Preheat
temp.
Ambient Preheat Acquisition Anneal Ambient
Time
Time-temperature profile and glow curve for LiF:Mg,Ti freshly exposed to 1 Gy

Sample glow curves
100
Relative thermoluminscent intensity
80
CaSO4 CaF2
60 LiF
40
20
0
0 100 200 300 400
Temperature - Degrees C

Glow curves for various TL phosphors
LiF:Mg,Ti 195 C LiF:Mg,Cu,P 220 C CaF2:Dy 180 C
Lithium fluoride Lithium fluoride Calcium fluoride dysprosium
CaF2:Mn 260 C Al2O3:C 185 C CaSO4:Dy 220 C
Calcium fluoride manganese Aluminum oxide Calcium sulfate dysprosium

TLD is attractive for radiation protection
dosimetry
Some TL materials are nearly tissue-equivalent.
TL offers high sensitivity, accuracy, low detection

limit and linearity over a wide dose range.
Many TL materials are commercially available as

small solid detectors adaptable for automatic
processing.
Particularly suited to beta skin and extremity

dosimetry.

General characteristics of commercially
available TLDs
TLD type Effective Main peak Emission Relative Fading
atomic (C) maximum sensitivity (at 25 C)
number (nm)
Zeff
LiF:Ti,Mg 8.3 200 400 1 5%/year

LiF:Na,Mg 8.3 200 400 1 5%/year
LiF:Mg,Cu,P 8.3 210 400 25 5%/year
Li2B4O7:Mn 7.3 220 605 0.20 4%/month
Li2B4O7:Cu 7.3 205 368 2 10%/2 months
MgB4O7:Dy 8.4 190 490 10 4%/month
BeO 7.1 190 200-400 0.20 8%/2 months
CaSO4:Dy 14.5 220 480-570 30 1%/2 months
CaSO4:Tm 14.5 220 452 30 1-2%/2 months
CaF2:Mn 16.3 260 500 5 16%/2 weeks
CaF2 (natural) 16.3 260 380 23 very slight
CaF2:Dy 16.3 215 480-570 15 8%/ months
Al2O3 10.2 360 699 4 5%/2 weeks

Photon energy dependence of various TLDs
Calculated relative response
101
10-1
101 102 103 104
Photon energy - keV
Thermoluminescent fading
Unintentional release of trapped electrons before

readout is called fading.
Fading may be due to thermally or optically

stimulated release of the electrons.

Fading of various phosphors
110 110 25 C, 97% RH
25 C, 50% RH LiF
LiF
CaF2:Dy
Relative dosimeter reading - %
90 90 CaF2:Dy CaSO4:Dy
CaSO4:Dy
70 70 Li2B4O7:Mn
Li2B4O7:Mn
50 50
0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60
50 C, 31% RH 50 C
100 CaSO4:Dy 100 CaSO4:Dy
LiF
80 80
LiF
60 CaF2:Dy 60
40 Li2B4O7:Mn 40
CaF2:Dy
20 20 Li2B4O7:Mn
0 0
0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60
Storage time - days
TL signal ratios under different filters
Theoretical chip ratios

10.
PTFE/Sn(0.33 mm)
5. PTE/Cu
PTFE/Sn(1.3 mm)
Ratio
PTFE/Sn(0.635 mm)
2.
1.
0.5
10 100 1000
Photon energy - keV

X-ray and response of a 4-element dosimeter
using LiF
3.5
Deep dose photon energy response
3.0
Relative response
2.5 1000 mg/cm2

Copper filter
Open window
2.0 300 mg/cm2
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
10 100 1000
Photon energy - keV

Dosimeters have excellent long term stability.
Dose evaluation is rapid, and dosimeters are

reusable.
TLD currently used for personnel beta dose

monitoring have energy threshold problems
because the detector is too thick, or non-tissue
equivalent.
Multi-element method is complex and can be

inaccurate.
Neutron response of TL materials depends on

detector composition, TLD encapsulation and
neutron energy.
Some TL phosphors have high thermal neutron

sensitivity, but low fast neutron response.
Techniques to increase TL fast neutron response

include use of a moderator to thermalize the
neutrons.

Short time exposure dating with LiF
Time post exposure - Hours

Long time exposure dating with LiF TLD
Time post exposure - Days

Harshaw 7776/8814 badge

Panasonic badge

Harshaw 6600 automated TLD reader

ENDOS automated TLD reader

Commercial TLD supply information
Dosimetry suppliers
ThermoRMP
www.thermormp.co.uk/
Landauer, Inc
www.landauerinc.com/products.htm
ICN Dosimetry Service

www.dosimetry.com/dx/external/default.html
Panasonic
www.panasonic.com/industrial/other/other_components_radiation_measurement_home.htm

Photoluminescence

Photoluminescent Dosimeters - PLD
Photoluminescence is based on formation of

induced luminescent centers in silver doped
phosphate glass.
When exposed to UV light, fluorescent light of a

larger wave length is emitted with intensity
linearly related to absorbed dose up to 30 Sv.
Unlike TL centers are not destroyed by normal

read-out and are extremely stable.
Fading at room temperature is negligible.

Photoluminescent dosimeters - PLD
Dose information can be obtained at any time

during long-term dose accumulation.
Commercial phosphate glass has good

reproducibility and constant sensitivity.
Individual calibration of dosimeters is not needed.
Pulsed UV laser read-out reduces the pre-dose of

unirradiated glasses to a value of about 10 Sv.
Because of the high Z value of the glass materials,

energy compensation filters are required.

Energy dependence of a typical PL glass
Sensitivity relative to 60Co
Photon energy - keV

Relative RPL intensity - % Example of an PL dosimeter design
Photon energy - keV

Photoluminescence dosimeters - PLD
Newer generation flat glass dosimeters have an

energy dependence 15% for photons >15 kev.
Automated phosphate glass dosimetry systems are

a possible alternative to TLD or film based systems.
PLDs have been used in accident dosimeters.
In criticality accidents, fast and thermal neutrons

can be measured using the 31P(n,p)32Si and
31P(n,)32P reactions and counting the emitted betas.

Photoluminescence dosimeters - PLD
PLD advantages include permanent and long-term

integration of dose information, good accuracy,
negligible fading and remeasurability.
A PLD disadvantage is need for energy
compensation filters, excluding measurement of
low energy photons.

Commercial PLD supply information
Dosimetry supplier
Chiyoda Technol
http://www.c-technol.co.jp

Optically Stimulated Luminescence

Optically stimulated luminescence - OSL
Pulsed OSL dosimetry - A narrow spectrum of light

repetitively illuminates an aluminum oxide film.
Optical energy releases a small fraction of the

trapped charge carriers created during exposure.
Released charge carriers combine with luminescent

centers to emit light detected with a PMT tube.
Each luminescence accumulation period ranges

from 25 msec to 100 msec.

With 10 accumulation periods per dose

measurement, the analysis time is approximately
250 msec.
The wavelength of the stimulation beam is 532 nm.
A series of optical filters between the OSL film and

photomultiplier tube reject the green stimulation
light and pass the blue luminescence which has a
peak wavelength of 420 nm.

Commercial dosimeter based on OSL

In the commercial version, aluminum oxide powder

is obtained by grinding solid crystals and sifting
the powder into the desired size range.
The powder is mixed with a polyester binder and

coated onto a roll of clear polystyrene film.
The coating is 18 mm wide by 0.15 mm thick and

each roll is generally 150 meters long.
The film roll is cut to produce film chips with an

aluminum oxide coating area of 18 mm x 17 mm.
Each film chip contains approximately 80 mg of

aluminum oxide powder.
Dosimetry is performed by stimulating three

circular areas 4 mm in diameter; each containing
3.3 mg of aluminum oxide powder.
Absorbers placed on both sides of the OSL film

alter the dose response of the film so that the
personal dose quantities can be assessed.

A fourth area, 6 mm x 6 mm, serves to image

determine static and dynamic exposure conditions.
A special absorber containing an array of

perforations projects a distinctive image on the
film.
A research grade, image intensified CCD camera

captures the luminescent image.
Computer programs interpret the image data and

can display the image in various configurations.

Relative response for several photon energiesa
ISOb X Ray Average Energy Response Relative

Quality (keV) to 137Cs
M30 20 1.95
M50 29 2.30
M60 34 2.22
M100 50 1.96
M150 71 1.48
H150 117 0.96
137Cs 662 1.00
a From data of Landauer, Inc.
b INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR STANDARDIZATION, X and Gamma Reference Radiations for Calibrating
Dosemeters and Doserate Meters and for Determining Their Response as a Function of Photon Energy, ISO 4037/Part
1: Radiation Characteristics and Production Methods, ISO, Geneva (1996).

Commercial OSL supply information
Dosimetry suppliers
Landauer, Inc
www.landauer.com/poducts.htm

Beta and Low Energy Photon
Dosimetry

Beta and low energy photon dosimetry
Beta sources external to the body do not cause

significant irradiation of deeper-lying tissue in the
body.
Can contribute significant exposure of the eye lens.
Particularly important in causing irradiation of the

hands, and especially of the finger-tips.

If photon or beta irradiation is fairly uniform, a

single dosimeter worn on an appropriate part of the
body is sufficient, however,
Beta irradiation of the body is usually non-uniform.
For non-uniform irradiation, additional dosimeters

on other parts of the body may be necessary.
Frequently, it is necessary to wear an additional

suitable dosimeter on the hands or fingers.

Commercial dosimetry services offer finger

rings in addition to conventional badges.

Dosimeter may need to measure skin dose from a

mixture of beta rays and photons.
Dosimeters based on a high Z detector materials

are not appropriate because of photon energy
dependence.
Better to use tissue equivalent dosimeter material.
Most photon dosimeter types can be used.

Ideal dosimeter for beta/gamma skin dose
Tissue equivalent detector approximately 5 mgcm-2

thick in close contact with a tissue equivalent filter
of the same thickness and kept in a tissue
equivalent holder.
Would provide a good estimate of tissue dose at

7 mgcm-2 depth, independent energy, angle of
incidence, or source configuration and geometry.
Dosimeter should be easy to handle and suited to

manual as well as automatic processing.

Several practical solid state detectors with good

dosimetric characteristics have been developed.
Thin layers of TL materials on a non-
thermoluminescent graphite base
Mixed MgB4O7:Dy TLDs
BeO TSEE detectors
Threshold detection levels as low as 100 Sv (or
about 20 Sv for BeO TSEE detector).
Small ion chambers adapted to electron
measurements by use of a thin entrance window.

Neutron Dosimetry

Neutron dosimetry presents unique challenges
Neutron interactions produce more densely ionizing

charged particles than photons.
Photons Electrons
Neutrons Recoil protons

Alpha particles
Heavy charged
particles
Neutron energies span 9 orders of magnitude vs. 3
for photons.
wR 5.

wR is very important for neutron dosimetry
30
ICRP Recommendation
25
ICRP Approximation
20
WR
15
10
0
10-8 10-7 10-6 10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 1 10 102
Neutron energy - MeV
Dosimeter energy response is very important
103
E
102 H*(10)
Hslab(10)
10
1
10-8 10-7 10-6 10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 1 10 102 103

Nuclear Track Emulsions

Neutron dosimetry - Nuclear track emulsions
Fast neutrons interact with the hydrogen in the

emulsion and film, producing recoil protons.
Protons pass through the emulsion to create latent

images or tracks which leads to film darkening
after processing.
Below 10 eV, neutrons interact with nitrogen nuclei

of the gelatin and produce recoil protons.
Tracks are counted with high magnification

microscopes.

NTA energy threshold is about 0.7 MeV.
Saturates at relatively low doses (about 50 mSv).
Accuracy depends on operator skill.
Thermal neutron sensitivity is undesirable,

dosimeter should be kept under a filter of neutron
absorbing material such as 6LiF or 10B carbide.

Recoil proton tracks from 14 MeV neutrons

NTA detects only fast neutrons
103
Relative response
102
101 NTA response
Slab phantom conversion coefficients
1
10-8 10-7 10-6 10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 1 10 102

High fading is a disadvantage of emulsion.
Fading is severe when used without protection in

high temperatures and humidity (~ 75% per week).
Fading can be controlled if the films are

desiccated and sealed in a moisture-proof pouch
prior to use.
Photon sensitivity is also a serious disadvantage.
Other methods are replacing film.

Solid State Nuclear Track
Detectors

Solid state track detectors (SSNTD)
Heavy charged particles such as fission

fragments, alpha particles or neutron induced
recoils produce damage along their path in
dielectric materials.
Tracks are etched chemically and become visible

under a microscope.
Electrochemical etching (ECE) enlarges the track

diameter to make large area counting possible.

Solid state track detectors (SSNTD)
Three SSNTD techniques have been used for

neutron dosimetry :
Fission track detectors
Recoil track detectors
Track detectors based on (n,p) reactions

Detector has 2 components;
Fissionable material (radiator or converter)
The fission fragment detector
All SSNTD materials can be used to detect high

LET fission fragments.
Efficiency is typically between 85 and 92%.

Fission reactions have neutron energy thresholds;
0.6 MeV for 237Np
1.3 MeV for 232Th
1.5 MeV for 238U
or very high cross sections for thermal neutrons

(e.g. 235U or 239Pu).

Neutron energy can be determined using

different radiators.
Thermal neutron shields (e.g. Cd or 10B) can be

used to separate thermal neutrons from those at
higher energies.
Use of fissionable radiators leads to increased

radiation risk.
Use of fissionable materials in dosimeters is

restricted or forbidden in certain countries.

Neutron interactions in the track detector or

radiator may produce recoil charged particles such
as protons, carbon, oxygen and nitrogen.
Recoils produce latent tracks which also can be

visualized by etching.
A combination of chemical etching and

electrochemical etching (ECE) or a two-step ECE
technique can be used to detect recoil tracks.

Track density can be counted with a microfiche

reader or an automatic particle counter.
Response depends on the detector and energy.
Etching techniques are optimized for each

combination of radiator, absorber and detector
material.
Energy response curves must be experimentally

established and are only valid for conditions used.

Most common detector materials are

polycarbonate, cellulose nitrate and CR39.
Polycarbonate is simple, inexpensive and very

stable, with an energy threshold is between 2 and 5
MeV.
CR39 has a low threshold (~100 keV) and high

sensitivity.
A number of services use CR39.

Electrochemical etch tracks
Plastic surface
Side
view ~50 m
Early tree formation Etched track
Top view for

counting

CR39 is a fast neutron detector
103
Relative response
102
CR39 (ECE*)
10
Slab phantom conversion
coefficients
* Electrochemically etched
1
10-8 10-7 10-6 10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 1 10 102

(n,) Track Detectors
Uses neutron induced alpha particles in an

external particle radiator or converter:
6Li (n,) 3H or 10B (n,) 7Li
Cross sections are high for thermal neutrons and

decrease as 1/v with increasing energy.
Efficiency depends on the type of material and
etching conditions.
Limit of detection for intermediate neutrons is as
low as a few mSv, and 1 mSv for fast neutrons.

TLD Albedo Dosimeters

TLD albedo dosimeters
Detection of low energy neutrons reflected from the

body with thermal detector.
TLD with 6LiF (TLD 600) and 7LiF (TLD 700) with
various shields.
Neutron dose is determined by difference between

6LiF and 7LiF detector readings.
Relative response can vary by a factor of 50.
Energy response can be improved slightly by the

dosimeter encapsulation.

Albedo response is poor for fast neutrons
103
Bare 6Li
Relative response
Hankins albedo
102
101
Slab phantom
conversion cofficients
1
10-8 10-7 10-6 10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 1 10 102

For albedo dosimeters, neutron fields can be put in

4 categories:
Reactors, linear accelerators and accelerators
for medical therapy
Nuclear fuel fabrication areas
Radioactive neutron sources
High energy accelerators with little or no
shielding
Within a neutron field class, relative neutron

response does not vary by more than a factor of 2.

Very large energy dependence is a disadvantage.
Energy dependence can be improved with a second

detector for fast neutrons.
Albedo dosimeters detect neutrons of all energies

coupled and have simple, automatic TLD read out.
Extensive field calibrations of each dosimeter type

is necessary.

Calibration curves for working areas can reduce of

albedo response within 30%.
Depending on neutron field the lowest detectable

dose using TLD albedos varies from 50 to 200 Sv.
Albedo dosimeters can be combined with track

detectors for separate measurement of fast
neutrons.
Albedo detector serves as the basic neutron

detector for screening purposes.
Bubble Detectors

Bubble Damage Polymer Detector
Superheated droplets are

suspended in a firm elastic
polymer.
Neutrons trigger droplets

giving rise to formation sites.
Number of bubbles is a measure

of the neutron dose.
Completely passive device which can be stored

until required for use.
Bubble damage polymer detector
Does not require electronic readout.
Automatic reader can be used for a large number of

detectors.
Extremely sensitive to neutrons (in Sv range).
Completely insensitive to gamma rays.
Can be made with neutron energy thresholds from

<20 keV to several MeV.

Bubble damage polymer detector
Set of detectors can be used for crude

spectrometry.
One type of a bubble detector has flat energy

response for dose equivalent from about 200 keV to
>15 MeV.
Significant temperature dependence.
Limited dose range, so several dosimeters with

different sensitivities must be worn.
Finally, bubble detectors can be expensive.

Superheated Drop and Bubble detectors use
different detection mechanisms
Bubble Technology TM
APFEL Liquid Matrix
BD-100R Bubble Dosimeter Superheated Drop Detector
Cap
Glass or Plastic
Event Event
Tube
Acoustical Acoustical
Elastic Polymer Transducer Transducer
(Gel)
Trapped Bubbles
~1 mm diam.
Superheated Anti-Coincidence Counting and

Liquid Drops Circuitry Display Circuitry
~0.025 mm diam.
Noise Acoustical
Transducer

Bubble detectors can have a wide energy range

Electronic Dosimeters

Passive dosimeters have limitations
Lack of direct dose display.
No alarm or indication of high dose rate or

dose.
Limited sensitivity.
Limited accuracy in some cases.
Need for significant laboratory investment.

Why are electronic dosimeters needed?
Instant or direct readout where the potential for

high exposures exists.
Alarm at given levels of dose and dose rate.
Indication of Hp(10) and Hp(0.07).
Better characteristics for neutron dosimetry.
Data transfer to and from computer networks.

Commercial electronic dosimeters also
have limitations
Potential dosimeter cost.
Passive dosimeters are used extensively.
Market is not growing vastly for photon and beta

dosimeters.
Market is very small for neutron dosimeters.

Detection mechanisms for electronic
(active) dosimeters
Charged fiber (electroscope) pocket dosimeters.

Ion chambers.
Silicon diodes.
Geiger-Mller counters.
Direct ion storage.
Charged particle radiators for neutrons.

Pocket Dosimeters

Pocket dosimeters
Based on ionization of gases in a small chamber.
Suitable for monitoring different types of radiation.
Direct-reading devices with and without built-in

charger: pocket electrometers.
Indirect-reading devices: Condenser type pocket

ion chambers require a readout device.

Direct reading pocket dosimeter

Pocket dosimeters
Useful when immediate indication of the worker's

radiation exposure is required.
Commonly used as supplementary dosimeters.
Should have appropriate wall materials and

thicknesses for adequate response to electron,
photon or neutrons.
Single dosimeters will have a limited dose range.

Pocket dosimeters
Care should be taken against erroneous readings

due to electrical leakage.
Such dosimeters are called alarm and warning

devices.
A high degree of accuracy is not important, but

reliability is.
Proper functioning may be crucial to the safety of

personnel.

Commercial Electronic
Dosimeters

Electronic dosimeters
Over 20 types of electronic dosimeters are

commercially available.
Several GM devices for photons >30 keV.
Electronic dosimeters for Hp(10) have been

developed based on a single silicon diode.
Commercial dosimetry system based on 3 silicon

diode detectors, suitable for the simultaneous
measurement of HP(10) and HP(0.07) for photons
and betas.

Commercial electronic dosimeters
Large variation in specifications and quality.
Some photon dosimeters are well advanced.
Few photon/beta dosimeters are available.
Neutron dosimeters are new.
Careful evaluation needed.

Commercial electronic dosimeters
A credit card size routine individual dosimeter

has been developed,
silicon diode detector
measures dose and dose rate
adjustable alarm
stores daily integrated dose for 12 months.

Selected commercial electronic
dosimeters

Selected dosimeters - Eurisys
Very small and lightweight dosimeter for photon

radiation with EEPROM memory for detailed dose
history. One of the first advanced systems, today in
various applications.

Selected dosimeters - Fuji Electric
Small and lightweight dosimeter with versions for

photon or photon, beta and neutron radiation. Trend
dose collection (i.e. dose data stored every minute).
In use in Japanese nuclear power plants.

Selected dosimeters - MGP
Small, rugged and lightweight dosimeter for photon,

or photon and beta radiation. Different versions of
this system are in numerous applications, including
military.

Selected dosimeters - RADOS
Systems with silicon detectors for photon

radiation. Small, rugged and lightweight dosimeter
with various applications, including civil defense.

Selected dosimeters - RADOS
Passive electronic system

with Direct Ion Storage (DIS).
Small and rugged devices for
measurement of Hp(10) and
Hp(0.07) for photon and beta
radiation of wide energy range.
Especially rugged version for
military application and
special version for neutron
radiation.

Selected dosimeters - Siemens
Sophisticated dosimeter with standard version for

measuring Hp(10) and Hp(0.07) for photon and beta
radiation. Special version for neutron radiation.
Photon and beta version approved for legal
dosimetry in UK.
Electronic dosimeter energy responses

Electronic dosimeters encounter several
problems
Lack of security of data storage.
No adequate mechanical and climatic resistance.
Mass and size of dosimeter.
Battery type and life span.

Electronic dosimeters encounter several
problems
Poor low energy photon energy dependence.
Poor beta radiation response.
Sensitivity to electromagnetic fields.
Saturation at high dose rates.

Basic features of Direct Ion Storage (DIS)
systems
Nondestructive readout
Tissue equivalent detector
Passive operation
Small dimensions
Low production cost
Suitable for data networks
Options for various applications

Analog EEPRom memory cell
Control gate
Silicon oxide
Oxide
Electron
tunneling Floating gate
paths
Source Drain
Si

Cross section of DIS
Fill gas
Opening Floating gate

Oxide
Electron
tunneling
path
Source Drain
Si
Modified Transistor with ion chamber

DIS photon detector
Electrons Photons
Gas Graphite
or teflon

DIS-2 Detector Element

DIS-2 system

Personal alarm neutron dosimeters
P.A.N.D.s are based on several techniques:

Counter for measuring recoil protons.

3He detector in a small CH3 moderator with
thermal neutron shield.
Tissue equivalent proportional counter with a
microprocessor.
Silicon surface-barrier detector to detect recoil
ions from polyethylene and 10B radiators.

Commercial neutron dosimeters
Aloka PDM-313 (Si diode)

Fuji Electric NRY-22001 (Si diode)
Overhoff Technology Corporation Neutron
/Gamma electronic Dosemeter (Si diode)
Rados DIS-N (passive), (Ion chamber)
Siemens EPD-N (Si diode)

Example of a silicon diode based neutron
dosimeter

Prototype TEPC dosimeter

Bubble detector dosimeter
Event Event
acoustical acoustical
transducer transducer
Anti-coincidence Counting and

circuitry display circuitry
Noise acoustical
transducer
An active dosimeter, based on bubble detection,

has been produced commercially. It is based on
acoustical detection of bubble formation and
includes noise rejection anticoincidence circuitry.
Energy dependence of prototype
electronic neutron dosimeters
10
SDD MC-TEPC
ME-TEPC-24 ME-TEPC-144
ME-TEPC-PD DIS
Relative response
SWD
01
10-8 10-2 10-1 1 10 102
Neutron energy - Mev
DIS neutron detector
thermal fast
photons
neutrons neutrons
particles protons electrons
A-150 tissue
equivalent
plastic with
BN

RADOS DIS-N dosimeter

Conclusions and outlook
Several electronic dosimeter types are

commercially available.
Small number of types fulfill demanding
requirements.
Some electronic dosimetry systems are legally
approved for photon and beta radiation.
New products are available and development is
ongoing on neutron dosimetry.
Quality and application of electronic dosimetry are
expected to increase significantly.
References
BARTHE, J., et al., New devices for individual neutron dosimetry, Radiat. Prot. Dosim. 54 (1994) 365-368.
BORDY, J.M., BARTHE, J., BOUTRUCHE, B., SEGUR, P., A new proportional counter for individual neutron dosimetry,
Radiat. Prot. Dosim. 54 (1994) 369-372.
BURGKHARDT, B., ROBER, H.G., PIESCH, E., Phosphate glass energy compensation filters for the measurement of
operational dose quantities, Radiat. Prot. Dosim. 6 (1983) 287-289.
CHRISTENSEN, P., Review of personnel monitoring technique for the measurement of absorbed dose from external beta
and low energy photon radiation, Radiat. Prot. Dosim. 14 (1986) 127-135.
GRIFFITH, R.V. and TOMMASINO, L., Etch track detectors, Radiation Dosimetry: The Dosimetry of Ionizing Radiation,
Vol. III (KASE, K.R., BJARNGARD, B.E., ATTIX, F.H., Eds), Academic Press, New York (1990) Ch. 4.
HARRISON, K.G., TOMMASINO, L., Damage track detectors for neutron dosimetry: II. Characteristics of different detection
systems, Radiat. Prot. Dosim. 10 1-4 (1985).
HARVEY, J.R., BATES, J.R., MACKFARLINE, B., An assessment of a commercial individual dosemeter suitable for low
penetrating radiation, paper presented at Symp. on Personnel Radiation Dosimetry, Knoxville, 1984.
HFERT, M., PIESCH, E., Neutron dosimetry with nuclear emulsions, Radiat. Prot. Dosim. 10 1-4 (1985).
ING, H., The status of the bubble damage polymer detector, Nucl. Tracks Radiat. Meas. 12 (1986) 49-54.
INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Assessment of Occupational Exposure Due to External Sources of
Radiation, Safety Guide RS-G-1.3 (1999)
INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Neutron Monitoring for Radiological Protection, Technical Reports Series
No. 252, IAEA, Vienna (1985).
INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Personnel Dosimetry Systems for External Radiation Exposures, Technical
Reports Series No. 109, IAEA, Vienna (1970).

References
INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR STANDARDIZATION, X and Gamma Reference Radiations for Calibrating
Dosemeters and Doserate Meters and for Determining Their Response as a Function of Photon Energy, ISO 4037/Part 1:
Radiation Characteristics and Production Methods, ISO, Geneva (1996).
LACOSTE, F., LUCAS, M., Le systme Dosicard, Radioprotection 28 1 (1993) 77-81.
MARSHALL, T.O., POOK, E.A., BARTLETT, D.T., HALLAM, J., An approved personal dosimetry service based on an
electronic dosemeter, paper presented at International Radiation Protection Association Conf. Montreal, 17-22 May 1992.
PIESCH, E., BURGKHARDT, B., Albedo neutron dosimetry, Neutron Dosimetry in Radiation Protection (ING, H., PIESCH,
I., Eds), Nuclear Technology Publishing, Ashford (1985) 175-188.
PIESCH, E., BURGKHARDT, B., LiF albedo dosimeters for personnel monitoring in a fast neutron radiation field, Neutron
Monitoring for Radiation Protection Purposes, (Proc. Symp. Vienna, 1972), Vol. 2, IAEA, Vienna, (1973) 31-35.
PROKI M.S., Beta dosimetry with newly developed graphite mixed TL detectors, Phys. Med. Biol. 30 4 (1985) 323-329.
Wernli, C., Neutron Dosimetry with Ion Based DIS System, Proc. 10th International Congress of the International Radiation
Protection Association, Hiroshima, Japan, Paper T-13-4 (2000).

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International Atomic Energy Agency

International Atomic Energy Agency

International Atomic Energy Agency

International Atomic Energy Agency

Provide a reliable measurement of the operational

independent of type, energy and direction of

No dosimetry system can meet these requirements

International Atomic Energy Agency

Different dosimeters may be required for low

Workers at different glove boxes (+, +n) are

International Atomic Energy Agency

Photon dosimeters only for Hp(10).

International Atomic Energy Agency

Passive, integrating dosimeters

Optically stimulated luminescence

Solid state nuclear track detection

International Atomic Energy Agency

International Atomic Energy Agency

International Atomic Energy Agency

Film emulsion is made of AgBr crystals

A thin emulsion layer is coated on a plastic base.

Ionizing radiation interacts with emulsion grains to

In development, silver ions in the latent image

Blackening is measured with a densitometer.

International Atomic Energy Agency

Degree of blackening is a function of film type,

International Atomic Energy Agency

Film dosimeter with film packet and filters.

International Atomic Energy Agency

One filter is adequate for photons > 0.1 MeV.

Multiple filters (e.g. Cu, plastic and open window)

Blackening produced by gamma rays from neutron

Type and dose of incident radiation can be

International Atomic Energy Agency

FOG * FILM INVERTED

50 kV X-rays 100 kV X-rays 75 kV X-rays

Photon energy - keV

International Atomic Energy Agency

Optical density does not vary linearly with dose.

At higher doses, a reversal of optical density -

International Atomic Energy Agency

0.3 mSv/s 11. Sv/s

International Atomic Energy Agency

New calibrations are necessary for each new film

International Atomic Energy Agency

International Atomic Energy Agency

Film can be used in discriminating dosimeters to

International Atomic Energy Agency

Wrist Film Badge

International Atomic Energy Agency

International Atomic Energy Agency

The thermoluminescence mechanism is complex,

After exposure the latent measure of the absorbed

TLD readout consists of heating, light detection

International Atomic Energy Agency

TLD heating can be done in a number of ways

Electrical heating with a hot finger

Hot nitrogen gas

Radio frequency heating

International Atomic Energy Agency

Luminescent brightness vs. temperature at a

A photomultiplier or other light-sensitive device

Entire glow curve or the peak brightness is

Area under the curve or glow peak brightness is