Chapter 9

S.
Pradhan, CSE , SMIT 1

If Kernel needs space in memory because:
fork () must allocate space for a child process.
brk() increases the size of a process,
A process becomes larger by the natural growth

of its stack.
Kernel wants to free space in memory for

processes it had previously swapped out and
should now swap in.
S.Pradhan, CSE , SMIT 2
Data to be swapped out is likely to be
discontiguous in physical memory.
Kernel must gather the page addresses of data

to be swapped out.
Decrements the reference count of each region

in the process.
Swaps the region out if its reference count drops

to 0.
Saves the swap address of the region in the
region table entry.
The kernel allocates space on a swap device

and locks the process in memory.
Kernel copies the physical memory assigned to

a process to the allocated space on the swap
device.
Ignores unassigned virtual addresses.
Virtual address space of process is not copied.
When process is swapped back into memory

kernel consults the virtual address map.
It assigns the process to correct virtual addresses.

Gap
of
62K
Swap device

Gap Swap device
of
61K

copied
Fig: Mapping Process Space onto the Swap Device

Not
copied

copied

Not
copied

copied


Swap device

Swap device

Note:
The physical addresses occupied by the
process before and after the swap in the
main memory is not the same.
The process does not notice this change

at user-level because the contents of its
virtual space are the same.

Process 0, the swapper, is the only process that
swaps processes into memory from swap
devices.
At the conclusion of system initialization, the

swapper goes into an infinite loop, where its only
task is to do process swapping.
The swapper sleeps if there is no work for it to do.
The swapper executes only in kernel mode.

The swapper makes no system calls but uses
internal kernel functions to do swapping.
Clock handler measures the time each

process was in core memory or swapped out.
Swapper selects from among ready to run

process that had been swapped out longest .
While searching for ready to run process in
swap device following situation may arise:-
No ready to run processes exist on swap

device.
The swapper finds an eligible process to

swap in but system does not contain enough
memory.

Swapper goes to sleep.
Until a process on swap device wakes it.
Or until kernel swaps out a process that is

in ready to run.

The swapper attempts to swap another
process out .
If successful, restarts the swapping algorithm,

searching for a process to swap in.

Zombie processes do not get swapped out, because they do not
take up any physical memory.
Processes locked in memory, doing region operations, are also

not swapped out.
The kernel swaps out sleeping processes rather than those "ready to
run," because "ready-to-run" processes have a greater chance of
being scheduled soon.
The choice of which sleeping process to swap out is a function of

the process priority and the time the process has been in memory.
If there are no sleeping processes in memory, the choice of which

"ready-to-run" process to swap out is a function of the process nice
value and the time the process has been in memory.

To be swapped out :
Ready to run process must be core
resident for at least 2 seconds before
being swapped out.
To be swapped in:
Ready to run process must have been
swapped out for at least 2 seconds before
being swapped in.
This time value is known as residence

time.
1. Flaw 1
It may swap out a process that does not provide
enough memory for the incoming process.
Example:
If the swapper attempts to swap in a process that

occupies 1 megabyte of memory.
And the system contains no free memory.
It is futile to swap out a process that occupies only

2K bytes of memory.
2. Flaw 2
If swapper sleeps due to unavailability of

enough main memory, it searches again for
process to swap in.
Since some other process may now

become more eligible compared to
previous processes.
It may swap out many small process to

make room for a big process.

3. Flaw 3
Swapper chooses a ready to run process

to swap out, but the process had not
executed since its previous swap in.
It is known as THRASHING

If the swapper attempts to swap out a process
but cannot find space on the swap device, a
system deadlock could arise if the following four
conditions are met:
All processes in main memory are asleep,

All "ready-to-run" processes are swapped out.
There is no room on the swap device for
new processes.
There is no room in main memory for incoming
processes.
THRASHING

Process D calls nice( ),Swapped out without running

Machines whose memory architecture is based on pages
and whose CPU has restart able instructions can support
a kernel that implements a demand paging algorithm.
Swapping pages of memory between main memory and

a swap device.
Demand paging systems free processes from size

limitations otherwise imposed by the amount of physical
memory available on a machine.
The kernel still imposes a limit on the virtual size of a

process, dependent on the amount of virtual memory
the machine can address.
Since a process may not fit into physical memory.
The kernel must load its relevant portions into

memory dynamically and execute it.
Even though other parts are not loaded.
Demand paging is transparent to user programs

except for the virtual size

Is the set of pages that the process has
referenced in its last n memory references.
The number n is called the window of the

working set.
When a process addresses a page that is not

in its working set, it incurs a page fault.
In handling the fault, the kernel updates the

working set, reading in pages from a
secondary device if necessary

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S.

Pradhan, CSE , SMIT 1

brk() increases the size of a process,

A process becomes larger by the natural growth

Kernel wants to free space in memory for

Kernel must gather the page addresses of data

Decrements the reference count of each region

Swaps the region out if its reference count drops

The kernel allocates space on a swap device

Kernel copies the physical memory assigned to

Virtual address space of process is not copied.

When process is swapped back into memory

It assigns the process to correct virtual addresses.

S.Pradhan, CSE , SMIT 6

S.Pradhan, CSE , SMIT 7

Fig: Mapping Process Space onto the Swap Device

S.Pradhan, CSE , SMIT 8

Fig: Mapping Process Space onto the Swap Device

S.Pradhan, CSE , SMIT 9

Fig: Mapping Process Space onto the Swap Device

S.Pradhan, CSE , SMIT 10

S.Pradhan, CSE , SMIT 11

S.Pradhan, CSE , SMIT 12

S.Pradhan, CSE , SMIT 13

S.Pradhan, CSE , SMIT 14

S.Pradhan, CSE , SMIT 15

The process does not notice this change

S.Pradhan, CSE , SMIT 16

At the conclusion of system initialization, the

The swapper sleeps if there is no work for it to do.

The swapper executes only in kernel mode.

Clock handler measures the time each

Swapper selects from among ready to run

No ready to run processes exist on swap

The swapper finds an eligible process to

S.Pradhan, CSE , SMIT 19

Until a process on swap device wakes it.

Or until kernel swaps out a process that is

S.Pradhan, CSE , SMIT 20

If successful, restarts the swapping algorithm,

S.Pradhan, CSE , SMIT 21

Processes locked in memory, doing region operations, are also

The choice of which sleeping process to swap out is a function of

If there are no sleeping processes in memory, the choice of which

S.Pradhan, CSE , SMIT 22

This time value is known as residence

If the swapper attempts to swap in a process that

And the system contains no free memory.

It is futile to swap out a process that occupies only

If swapper sleeps due to unavailability of

Since some other process may now

It may swap out many small process to

S.Pradhan, CSE , SMIT 32

Swapper chooses a ready to run process

S.Pradhan, CSE , SMIT 33

All processes in main memory are asleep,

S.Pradhan, CSE , SMIT 35

S.Pradhan, CSE , SMIT 39

Swapping pages of memory between main memory and

Demand paging systems free processes from size

The kernel still imposes a limit on the virtual size of a

The kernel must load its relevant portions into

Even though other parts are not loaded.