The Philippine constitution states that

educational institutions must develop

in the students critical and creative
thinking (Art. XIV, Section 3(2).
The Philippine constitution states that
educational institutions must develop
in the students critical and creative
thinking (Art. XIV, Section 3(2).

This provision is corollary to the

mandate of the state to protect and
promote the right of all citizens to
quality education at all levels (Art. XIV,
Section 1)
It comes from two Greek terms :
philos means love and
sophia means wisdom or knowledge
Therefore, philosophy is ordinarily and
etymologically construed as the love for
wisdom or knowledge.
Philosophy is classified into practical and
speculative. Practical philosophy includes:
 Philosophy is classified into practical and
speculative. Practical philosophy includes:
Logic: the science and art of correct
thinking
 Philosophy is classified into practical and
speculative. Practical philosophy includes:
Logic: the science and art of correct
thinking
Ethics: the study of standards of right and
wrong
 Philosophy is classified into practical and
speculative. Practical philosophy includes:
Logic: the science and art of correct
thinking
Ethics: the study of standards of right and
wrong
Axiology: The study of the nature, types,
criteria, and status of human values
 Logic, Ethics, and Axiology are practical
philosophies because the human person
who is a practical being:
Seeks knowledge that will guide his action
in daily living, and in the search of truth;
Develops and masters his reasoning
skills; and
Finds them especially Logic, useful in the
study of speculative philosophy.
 Epistemology: the science dealing with
human knowledge, the focus of which is
to know the truth;
 Metaphysics: addresses the fundamentals
of existence or reality such as the
existence and nature of God, immorality
of soul, meaning of evil, the problem of
freedom, and determining the relationship
of mind and body;
 Aesthetics: a philosophical
inquiry on beauty and of the
beautiful;
 Cosmolgy: a philosophical inquiry
of the physical world in its final
analysis.
 Rational Psychology: study of the
principles of living things,
especially that of man;
 Social
Philosophy: study of the
socioeconomic-political
dimensions of human beings;
 Philosophy of Man: a study of the
nature of man as a person, his
origin and destiny;
 Theodicy: study of a Supreme
Being and His relation to His
creatures;
 Political
Philosophy: an inquiry
into the ultimate foundation of the
state, the ideal form of
government, and its basic power.
 Speculative modifying philosophy comes
from the verb to speculate which means
to reflect, think or theorize.
Man as a rational animal has the capacity
to speculate beyond what he sees in reality.
As a philosopher, he knows how to interpret
things across their physical features. This
characterizes speculative philosophy as
metaphysical.
 Prior to any speculative search for truth, a
student of philosophy should master first
the basic steps in knowledge building,
namely:
a. Factual: a descriptive way in knowing
things or reality sensibly.
b. Analogy: knowing things through
comparison, that is, using an inferential
reasoning that things alike in certain
respects will be alike in others; a
likeness in some ways between things
that are otherwise unlike.
c. Cause and Effect: every event has a cause,
for every effect there must be a cause.
d. Generalization: the syllogistic way of arriving
at a conclusion through induction or deduction.
e. Theory: putting for the coherent group of
assumptions to explain and reason on the
relationship between two or more observable
facts; it assumes the existence of truth about
reality.
f. Principle: establishing a comprehensive rule,
doctrine or law which furnishes a basis or origin
for others.
 Understand oneself (sarili);
Discovers ones inner self (loob);
Recognizes ones otherness (social
being);
Accept oneself as part of nature of the
world (microcosm);
Understand the eschatology of human
life; and
With the aid of reason, believe in the
existence of INFINITE WISDOM.
What is LOGIC?
Logic comes from the Greek word logos
which means study, reason, or discourse, or
logia, argument, or logike, act of
reasoning.
Generally, logic is understood as the
science and art of correct thinking (Cruz,
1995)
 Itis a body of systematized knowledge,
and
it investigates, discourses, expresses,
systematizes, and demonstrates the law
of correct thinking (Gualdo, 2000)
As an art, logic guides mans reasoning so
he can proceed with order and ease and
without error in the constructive activity of
making definitions of terms, propositions
and inferences (Gualdo, 2000).
 Right order,
Reasonable procedure,
Valid inference,
Consistency, and
Necessary relationship
 Conformity to certain valid rules and
laws and
Connectivity of truth about all
available experiences.
Logic, then, is a philosophical tool that
helps in the formation of ideas,
comparing them through accurate
judgment and critically inferring from
them valid and sound conclusions.
 Under the foregoing definition of logic, we may
derive and categorize elements of or discrete
activities comprising logical thinking. These
includes: (Ernis, 1996)
Observations: from observations, we establish:
Facts: from facts, we make:
Inferences: to test the validity of inferences, we
make:
Assumptions: from assumptions, we form:
 Opinions: to make opinions credible and
acceptable, we employ principles of logic
to develop:
Arguments: challenging arguments of
others, we use:
critical or logical analysis: to challenge the
given observations, facts, inferences,
assumptions and opinions in the
arguments.
1. The study of logic contributes to the quality of
human life to improve human civilization.
2. The art and science of creative thinking is
helpful in the practice of any profession, and
in analyzing or making decisions in ones daily
life.
3. Logic builds confidence in oneself, and
provides man a sense of direction, order,
validity, truth, and accuracy.
4. Knowledge of Logic helps in preventing
the commission of errors.
5. It also helps us avoid making
conclusions, based on false and based
assumptions.
6. Knowledge of Logic is best tested in
argumentation and debate when and where
discussion for and against any issue is
involved and critically articulated.
 Logical thinking is critical thinking
They are both referred to inferential
reasoning: a science and art of correct
thinking.
To be logical or critical is to be analytical,
synthetical, evaluative, open-minded,
reflective, empirical and philosophically
speculative.
 Logical or critical thinking is construed to
mean an investigation whose purpose is
to explore a situation, phenomenon, or a
problem to arrive at a hypothesis or
conclusion.
Critical thinking is a sine qua non of
decision-making and problem-solving
processes.
Logic is commonly divided or
categorized according to the three
(3) Acts of the Mind or Mental
Operations. These categories are
as follows:
Logic is commonly divided or
categorized according to the three
(3) Acts of the Mind or Mental
Operations. These categories are
as follows:
1. Simple Apprehension
Logic is commonly divided or
categorized according to the three
(3) Acts of the Mind or Mental
Operations. These categories are
as follows:
1. Simple Apprehension
2. Judgment
Logic is commonly divided or
categorized according to the three
(3) Acts of the Mind or Mental
Operations. These categories are
as follows:
1. Simple Apprehension
2. Judgment
3. Reasoning
 MENTAL
O
P
E
R
A
T
I
O
N

REASONING
This unit is all about the first act
of the mind. It aims to provide
basic techniques on how to
analyze concepts, terms and
predicability. Knowledge of
these techniques is a key to an
easy understanding of the other
two complicated mental
operations, namely: Judgment
and Reasoning.
 Predicabilityis a thing that can be
related, affirmed or predicated. It
is any one of the various kinds of
predicate (genus, species,
specific difference, property, and
accident) that can be used and
said of a subject in a sentence or
proposition.
Pentagon in relation to
polygon
Sampaguita in relation to
flower
Dog in relation to animal
Predication is the act, the
pronouncement or fact of
stating, asserting or affirming
something about the subject
of a proposition.
Pentagon is a polygon
Sampaguita is our national
flower
A dog is an animal
Inference is the act or
process of forming a
judgment by bringing in
conclusion from or based
on known facts.
Allflowers are plants
Sampaguita is a flower
Ergo, Sampaguita is a plant.
 Etymologically,to apprehend
(from Latin word prehendere)
means to seize or take hold of
something mentally.
 Etymologically, to apprehend
(from Latin word prehendere)
means to seize or take hold of
something mentally.
Apprehension is a mental act of
grasping an idea or concept that
represents the essence,
substance or nature of a concrete
thing or reality.
Reality is understood as
the sum total of all existing
individual beings, whether
material or spiritual.
It consist of real things, of
actual facts, of material
objects.
Faculty refers to instinctive and
knowing powers of the human
person.
It starts with the senses: sight,
smell, taste, or smell are aroused
or stimulated, the process of
sensation is at work, and the
product of which is a sense image
or a direct representative of
reality in the senses.
Phantasm is a new picture
in the inner eye.
It is an indirect and
imaginative representation of
reality.
It represents imperfectly the
sense image.
 The mind mirrors and reads into
the essence or substance or
nature of the thing, grasping and
apprehending this essence.
The minds apprehension of the
essence is called the idea.
This idea is the representation of
an essence in the mind by the
mind.
This idea may be
expressed orally or in
writing.
This language expression is
called term.
 Faculty: Sense of Smell. I smell
something odorous.
Sensation: The odor arouses my
sensation or instinct to
smell.
I sense that the odor is
sensational that pleases my
sense of smell.
Sense Image: I sense now an image
of a pleasant object with its
 Imagination: I imagine this pleasant or
sweet smelling object.
Phantasm: the result of my
imagination is a sense knowledge of a
definite odorous object which is
pleasant to smell.
Abstraction:My mind mirrors or sees the
essence of that odorous object by
discarding, removing or disregarding the
physical characteristics or accidental
features. My intellect now understands or
apprehends the representation of that
 Idea: The mental representation is an
idea, my idea of PERFUME.
Term: I express this idea orally or in
writing and say PERFUME. I write
PERFUME.
Predicability: The term PERFUME can
be predicated or related to other terms
like Baby Cologne, Musk, Polo Sport,
Tatiana, Jovan, and many more. Thus,
Tatiana is a perfume.
 Faculty: Sense of Sight. I see young
people in school uniform.
Sensation: The sight arouses my
sensation or power to see.
Sense Image: I now see an image
of young people in uniform of
different colors and styles.
 Imagination: I make vivid pictures of
these young people in my
imagination.
Phantasm: The product of my
imagination is a sense knowledge of
particular persons in school uniform.
Abstraction: My intellects disregards and
draw or extracts from the physical
features of those young people in
school uniform. It now apprehends
or understands the essence
underlying such sense knowledge.
 Idea: The mental representation is an idea,
my idea of STUDENTS.
Term: I express this idea orally or in writing.
So, I say or write STUDENTS.
Predicability: The term STUDENTS can be
predicated or related to other terms such
as Jose and Pedro. Thus, Jose and
Pedro are students. Jose and Pedro are the
subject idea, while students, the
predicate idea joined by the copula are,
if they are still in the mind. They become
subject term and predicate term when
they are expressed into proposition. Thus,
Jose and Pedro are subject term, while
The cognitive domain includes
two levels:
The fact
The concept
 The fact level includes the
stimulation of the reptilian
(instinctive) brain and the limbic
brain.
 The fact level includes the
stimulation of the reptilian
(instinctive) brain and the limbic
brain.
The concept level involves the
operation of the neo-cortex or
thinking brain.
 Thisfirst mental act begins with
facts or things.
These facts are objects of the
faculty of the senses: touch,
taste, sight, smell, and
hearing.
The neo- cortex or thinking
brain is at work under the
concept level in the
cognitive process.
 The affective learning is judgment
or the decision analysis and
decision-making process.
It includes moral reasoning and
development of values guiding
decisions.
The will prompts or dictates the
mind to decide and choose the
best alternative.
 This is judgment, which is the
second mental operation.
This mental process occurs in the
limbic brain, which is the seat of
affections, feelings, emotions,
memory, imagination that may
constitute the heart or the human
will.
 Itoperates when the human mind
argues, reasons out, applies,
makes inferences or brings in
conclusion about whether
judgments are valid and sound,
justifiable, feasible or based on
reliable evidence and sensible
postulates
The active domain is operation of
the third act of the mind:
1. Define language and explain its
function
2. Explain the nature of a word
3. Distinguish between a word and an
idea
4. Explain the nature of an idea
5. Discuss how idea is formed
6. Discuss the properties and
classifications of idea
Itmay be defined as a
set of symbols by which
things, ideas and
thoughts are
communicated to others.
A language is always
characterized by four elements,
namely:
1. Symbol (a word, name, or phrase
used to signify something);
2. Referent (that which is
symbolized or denoted);
3. Reference (the meaning or
signification existing between the
symbol and the referent); and
4. Subject (the individual who uses
Illustrative Example:
The word flower as symbol;
specific, concrete flower like
rose as referent; love,
admiration and respect as
reference; suitor, student, or
teacher as subject.
 Incommunication process,
critical thinkers have roles to
play in studying various types
of messages that confront the
sender and receiver, or the
professors and the students in
the classroom setting.
Let us consider the following
statements/ propositions/
sentences and see the
differences:
1. A rose is a species of flower,
which is the genus of plant
kingdom.
2. Women love flowers.
3. Give your sweetheart flowers
on Valentines Day.
Analysis of the three
foregoing statements
conveys to us three types of
messages that corresponds
to the three basic functions
of language.
These functions are as follows:
1. Informative function: claiming
something about reality
whether true or false.
2. Expressive function:
expressing or arousing some
feeling or emotion.
3. Directive function: attempting
to influence behavior.
A word is arbitrary or man-made.
As such, it is conventional.
It is conventional because it can
be changed or invented through
linguistic convention.
It has been the result of common
usage and social agreement.
A word is used as a sign or an
idea.
 An idea is an intellectual image of a
thing or the intellectual apprehension
of a thing.
It differs from a percept, which is
concrete, particular and individual,
while the former is abstract and
universal.
The idea is a representation of an
essence in the mind by the mind.
It represents the phantasm as well as
the reality of the essence.
An idea is formed through
the process of abstraction
and which is drawn out
from characteristics
common to a group of
particulars.
 Theidea has two important
logical properties, namely:
comprehension and extension.
Comprehension is the set of
thought elements or conceptual
features contained in an idea;
while
Extension is the range or scope of
individuals and classes to which an
idea may be applied.
 ESSENCE COMPREHENSION EXTENSION
Being Existing Accident, Spirit,
Mineral, Plant, Brute, Man

Substance Existing, Subsistent Spirit, Mineral, Plant,

Brute, Man

Body Existing, Subsistent, Bodily Mineral, Plant, Brute, Man

Organism Existing, Subsistent, Plant, Brute, Man

Bodily, Living

Animal Existing, Subsistent, Brute, Man

Bodily, Living, Sentient

Man Existing, Subsistent, Bodily, Man

Living, Sentient, Rational
The principle or general
law of comprehension
and extension of idea is
distinctly illustrated by
the Tree of Being.
 TONY JOSE JOHN PETER ANA MARIE

MAN
BRUTE (rational)
(non-
rational) ANIMAL PLANT
(sentient) (non-
MINERAL sentient)
(nonliving) ORGANISM
(living)

BODY SPIRIT
ACCIDENT (material (non-material)
(in another) )
SUBSTANCE
(in itself)

BEING
(existing
)
Ideas may be classified
according to the object
that they expressed as
well as according to
other considerations or
grounds.
They are as follows:
1. Simple and Compound- Simple idea
expresses only one conceptual
feature or characteristic.
Examples:
existence, reality, beauty
The ideas of existence, reality and beauty
are simple yet comprehensive for they
include all beings that exist, or are extended
to all existing beings such as accident, spirit,
mineral, plant, brute, and man. Anything
that exists is a being, a reality which is good
 Compound idea expresses
several constituent conceptual
elements or integral features.
Example: man

The idea of man connotes

philosophically the
characteristics of rationality
and animality. Religiously,
man is perceived to be a
composite of body, soul and
2. One and Multiple- One idea that
expresses only one thing, nature, although it
may comprise several constituent
conceptual elements.
Examples:
man, a house, a car
The idea of man or house or car is one for
their respective components are
inseparable: man is neither only a soul nor
only a body; or a house is neither just a
kitchen , a living room nor a roof; or a car is
neither just an automobile, a machine nor
 Multiple idea, on the other hand, expresses
in an explicit manner, a thing, nature or
formal feature as modified by another
thing, or formal nature in accessionary
manner. This is similar to the idea of
apellation, that is, the denomination of an
idea by another idea.
Examples: the prudent man, a student
philosopher, a relevant course of study
Prudent, student, and relevant are
denominating ideas, while man,
philosopher, and course are
denominated ideas.
3.Concrete and Abstract- Concrete
idea expresses a subject that is
qualified by another concept.
Examples: intelligent student, beautiful
dress
Student and dress are the
concrete subjects referred to by
the mind. They are qualified by
intelligent and beautiful,
respectively, specifying the kind
of subject thought of.
 Abstractidea expresses a
nature or a formal feature
without a subject.
Examples: holiness, justice,
hospitality
The given examples are ideas
thought of apart from any
particular or concrete things.
4. Absolute and Relative-
Absolute idea expresses a
thing, nature or formal feature
without any relation to some
other thing.
Examples: minerals, organisms
Minerals refer absolutely to
nonliving things or
organisms to living beings.
 Relative idea expresses a thing,
nature, or formal feature
bearing a relation to something
else or expressing explicitly a
relation.
Examples: creature, husband,
student, employee
Creature in relation to a creator,
husband to a wife, student to a
teacher, or employee to an
5. Complete and Incomplete-
Complete idea expresses all the
conceptual reasons or features that
correspond to the comprehension or to
the nature of an object.
Examples: man, car
The concept of man or car is one and
complete. We cannot think of a human
person existing only as rational being or
sentient being or a car functioning
separately its respective part.
 Incomplete idea expresses only some
of the conceptual reasons or features
that correspond to the comprehension
or to the nature of the object.
Examples: man is rational being, a car
is a vehicle
Man is not only rational but also
sentient being, or a car is not
simply described a vehicle but
must be qualified as a wheeled
railroad automobile.
1. Singular- that which expresses a
concept or a set of conceptual
features, that is applicable only
to one individual.
Examples: the President of the
Philippines, the Roman Catholic
Pope, the Prophet of Islam
2. Universal- that which
expresses a concept, a nature,
or a formal feature that is
applicable individually or
distributively to the individuals
of a kind or class.
Examples: girl, student, Filipino,
animal
3. Transcendental- that which
expresses a nature or a formal
reason that is applicable
individually or distributively to
individuals of different kind or
class.
Examples: nature, object,
goodness, one, two, three
4. Particular- that which
expresses only a part of the
extension of a universal or
transcendental concept
whether in an indefinite or a
definite manner.
Examples: most students, some
teachers, six girls
5. Collective- that which
expresses a group of
individuals as a set, not as
individuals.
Examples: family, army,
nation
1. Univocal- Univocal idea expresses
a nature or a formal reason that
may be found in individuals in
exactly the same sense and
manner.

Examples: Filipino national or

nationality, physician or doctor of
medicine, dentist or doctor of dental
 Thegiven examples are
capable of but one
interpretation for each has one
meaning only like the idea of
a student necessarily,
connotes the idea of learner,
physician, the idea of doctor
of medicine.
2. Analogous idea expresses a nature
or a formal reason that may be found
in may individuals in a sense that is
the same only in proportional manner,
or similar in the quality or feature that
is being thought of.

Examples: cause- principle

human heart- pump
life blood of a nation- taxation
 The idea of cause is analogous
to the idea of principle as
illustrated by the principle of life
caused by human participation
in the procreative act or original
blessing of God.
The human heart is analogous to
a pump inasmuch as both have
similar function in energizing a
structure.
1. Precise and Imprecise- Precise
idea expresses the reason or
conceptual features of an
object in an exact manner.
Examples: triangle, square
Imprecise idea expresses
features or characteristics of
an object not in an exact
manner
Example: triangle or a square
drawn with unequal
sides
2. Clear and Obscure- Clear
idea expresses the reason or
features of an object in a
distinct means.
Example: Man as rational
animal.
The description completes the
whole pictures of man with the
characteristics of rationality and
 Obscureidea expresses in a
vague and indistinct manner.
Example: Man is a handsome
and talking primate.
The description is vague
because it is still disputable that
man originates from ape as
espoused by the theory of
evolution.
3. Adequate and Inadequate-
Adequate idea expresses the
nature of an object through
conceptual reasons or formal
features that perfectly correspond
to it.
Example: man, a rational animal;
plant as a non-sentient living
organism does not possess the five
senses of the human person.
Inadequate idea expresses
imperfect description of an
object.
Example: Man is an animal
The characteristics of
animality speaks only a part
but not the whole concept of
man.
1. Immediate and Mediate-
Immediate idea is formed
from the direct investigation
or observation of things.
Example: Water is liquid.
Ice is solid.
 Mediate idea is formed from the
intermediary of empirical facts or
matters of faith.
Examples: Man derives from ape.
Mans soul is immortal.
The evolution theory has to be
supported by empirical study before
the idea may be accepted.
The idea of immortality has to be
supported by scriptures and doctrines.
2. Explicit and Implicit- Explicit idea
is that which is expressed.
Example: I love you (expressed in
words)
Implicit idea is that which is
implied.
Example: A kiss, a hug, or embrace
implies love or respect or an
acceptance of ones love.
3. Ideal/ Mental and Subjective/
Arbitrary
Ideal concept is that which the
mind envisions.
Examples: heaven on earth
classless society
The given examples illustrates the
power of the mind to form ideals
which man may realize in his lifetime.
 Subjective/ Arbitrary is that which
originates from the personal thinking
or judgment of man.
Example: Man is an ape.
The proposition is theory which Charles
Darwin personally and arbitrarily
advances and which is subject to
validation. Such validation must be
supported by facts, otherwise, the
proposition remains as mere
assumption or theory.
1. Identical and Equivalent-
Identical ideas are those that
signify the same thing or
object but differ only as
explicit and implicit
Example: rational- animal and
man
 Equivalentideas are those
which expresses the same
object although not the same
conceptual reason or formal
features.
Examples: H2O and water
sodium chloride and salt
2. Pertinent and Impertinent-
Pertinent ideas are those that are
somehow related to each other.
Examples:
- rationality and learning
- freedom and accountability
- authority and responsibility
- right and obligation
Impertinent ideas are
neither related nor
opposed to each other.
Example:
- wisdom and poverty
3. Compatible and
Incompatible- Compatible
ideas are those that can coexist
in the same subject.
Examples:
- science and religion
- Reason and faith
- Beauty and intelligence
 Incompatible ideas are those
which cannot coexist in the
same subject.
Examples:
- Sin and holiness
- Health and sickness
- Wisdom and foolishness
 Incompatible ideas may be
subdivided into:
a. Contradictory- ideas that are
extremely opposite or that
exactly negate another.
Examples: living and nonliving,
white and non-white, tall and
not tall
b. Contrary- ideas that are opposed to
each other as extremes in a certain order
or class. In contrariety, a middle ground
may exist.
Examples:
- Rich and poor
- Black and white
- Hot and cold

Between rich and poor, there may be a

middle class, or in the concept of black
and white, other colors like brown may
emerge, or between hot and cold,
c. Privative- concepts, one of
which expresses a quality or
perfection, and the other its
lack of it.
Examples:
- Sight and blindness
- Hearing and deafness
- Speech and dumbness
d. Correlative- concepts that
bear mutual relation to one
another.
Examples:
- Master and servant
- Husband and wife
- Student and teacher
 Term is the external representation of
a concept and the ultimate structural
element of proposition.
It is the sensible expression of ideas.
It is a verbal or oral, or written
expression of an idea.
It may also be understood as an idea
or group of ideas expressed in words.
Similarly, it is a sensible, conventional
sign expressive of a concept or idea.
1.Universal or Homologous
- a term being the same
meaning and applied to
several individuals.
Examples:
-scientist, Filipino, man
2. Analogous a term expressing
kindred meanings or one which is
predicated of two or more things in a
sense that is partly the same and partly
different.
It may be:
a. By proportionality, or by virtue of the
kindred similarity of the conceptual
and formal reason denoted.
Examples: beautiful, good
b. By proportion or by
association of the objects to
which the term is applied.

Examples: health, love, legs,

foot
3. Equivocal term outwardly or
apparently the same, but expressing
different meanings.
Examples:
sweet and suite
bow (inclination or weapon)
bat (animal or club)
club (weapon, group, or building)
ring (device or sound)
4. Metaphorical term transferred
from its proper meaning or object
and applied to something else, on
account of the latters resemblance
to the former and to denote such
resemblance.
Examples: king of animals, hand
of God, henpecked
husband
1. Common a term which may
be applied indiscriminately to
many persons or objects.

Examples: student, teacher,

boy, house
2. Singular or Individual a term that applies
only to one object.
It may be:
a. The proper name (examples: Ching Munoz,
URC)
b. A common term restricted by a particular
circumstance of place, time, incident, or
object
(examples: the president of the Senate, the
incumbent bishop of Malolos)
c. A common term restricted by a
demonstrative pronoun.
(examples: this teacher, those students)
1. Generic a term expressing the
common constituent or the
common essential feature of an
object.
Examples: tool, animal
2. Specific- expresses the distinctive
constituent or the distinctive
essential feature of an object.
Example: rational
1. Positive refers to a term which may
be:
a. Positive in form and positive in
meaning (PP)
Examples: calmness, life, love, peace

Note: The given examples imply

optimism, wholesomeness, a bright
perspective.
b. Negative in form but positive in
meaning (NP)
Examples: immortality, infinity,
independence

Note: the given examples are

negative in form but positive in
meaning. This gives way to the
principle of double negative in
Mathematics as well as in Logic.
c. Positive in form but negative in
meaning (PN)
Examples:
capability or right to commit
mistake, to die, to fall asleep or to
play basketball

Note: In reality, the given

examples/terms imply the inability
to be always correct, to be always
alive, awake or skillful.
2. Negative refers to a term which
may be:
a. Negative in form and negative in
meaning (NN)
Examples: noise, terrorism,
ugliness

Note: the given examples/terms are

negative in form as well as in
meaning. They imply pessimism or
unwholesome outlook.
1.Simpe or Single-worded a term
made up of only one word.
Examples: man, community, student

2. Compound or many-worded a term

made up of several component
words.
Examples:
sugar-coated; empty-handed;
student-friendly; man-made
1. Principal and incidental
Principal term expresses the main
object.
(example: the fear of God)
Incidental term expresses some
qualifications about the main
object.
(example: the love of country)
It may be:
a. Explicative revealing some
feature of the main object.
Example: Man who is mortal acts as
if he would not die.

b. Restrictive limiting the extension

of a term.
Example: Man who is wise speaks
little.
2. Categorematic
expressing a definite
meaning by itself.
Examples: truth, justice
1. Contradictory terms
wherein one affirms what
the other denies.
Examples:
life- lifeless;
right- not right;
thing- nothing
2. Contrary those that represent
the two extremes among objects of
a series belonging to the same
class.

Examples:
hot- cold;
happy miserable;
black white

Note: between contraries, there is

3. Privative those wherein one
signifies the perfection while the
other denies the same.
Examples:
health- sickness
wealth- poverty
sight- blindness
saint-sinner
4. Relative those wherein one
cannot be understood without
the other. The connotation of
one implies the connotation of
the other.
Examples:
mother-child;
teacher- pupil;
husband- wife
1.Real or Concrete one
whose referent is tangible
or can be perceived by the
senses.
Examples: tree, dog, house
2. Abstract one whose referent
is intangible or can be
understood only by the mind. It
may denote the property of
thing which is considered an
entity by itself. It denotes being,
quality, quantity, or relationship.
Examples: humanity, height,
kindness, democracy,
nationalism
3. Imaginary null or empty term
which has no actual referents but
only fabricated ones.
Examples: talking pig, flying horse,
fairy

As employed in the sentence, a

term has two important functions or
uses, namely: Supposition and
Appellation.
 Supposition of terms is the definite
meaning which a given term
stands for in a sentence or
proposition.

Example:
the term ball
I played ball this afternoon
I will attend the ball tonight
 Supposition may be classified to:
A. According to Object
1. Logical the term is used to stand
for something existing only in the
mind as object of its
consideration.
Example: Human soul is immortal

The term immortality stands for soul

only in ones consciousness.
2. Real the use of term for what it
signifies in reality.
Example: Man is animal; man is mortal.

The term animality stands for what

man partly is, that is, he is sentient
possessing in common with the brute,
the five senses.
The term mortality stands for what man
is, who is subject to the phenomenon
of death.
3. Imaginary a term used to
stand for an object of the
fantasy or as figment of an
imagination.

Example: Spiderman,
Plasticman, Mickey Mouse,
white lady, dwarf,
aswang,tiyanak, kapre
4. Metaphorical a term used to
stand for an allied meaning and not
the proper meaning of the same.
Examples:
the dove
lamb of God
the bamboo
The term dove stands for peace,
and the lamb for meekness of
Christ, and the bamboo for
patience and resiliency of the
1.Individual the term means
a definite individual.
Example:
the president of the Philippines
2. Universal the term is used to
stand distributively for all
individuals of the same nature or
class.
Example:
Honesty is the best policy.
3. Particular the term means
only part of the extension of
the universal.
Example:
Some students are crazy.
4. Collective the term
means a group of or
individuals as composing
a group.
Example: medical team
1.Material the term stands only for
the subjects that are identified by
the nature or qualification
expressed but not as qualified by
them.
Examples:
A sinner can be a saint
A man can cease to be a
man
2. Formal the term stands for a
subject as identified and
qualified by the nature or
qualification expressed.
Examples:
The physician heals patient
That artist performs well
A sinner cannot be a saint
1.Precise when a term bears only one
meaning in the proposition.
Example: I am a Filipino citizen.
2. Ambiguous when a term bears
several possible meaning in the
sentence.
Example: the URC team
2.a. Vague when term is loose and
unclear
3. Proper when a term stands
for another thing that it suggests.
Examples:
- Malacaang suspended the
Writ of Habeas Corpus.
- The Vatican has banned the
use of contraceptive pills.
 The rules are as follows:
1. The extension of the
supposition of the subject
must be determined from the
precise meaning it has in the
sentence.
Example:
Man is a corruptible being.
2. The predicate of an
affirmative proposition, whether
the proposition be universal or
particular, has particular
supposition.
Example:
Most women are emotional.
3. The predicate of a negative
proposition, whether the
proposition be universal, or
particular, has universal
proposition.
Example:
- Men are not brutes
- Priests and nuns are not angels
4. A change or shift in the
supposition of an apparently
identical term introduces
surreptitiously four conceptual terms
in a syllogism which apparently
employs only three terms.
Example:
Man is specie.
But Pedro is a man.
Therefore, Pedro is a specie.
 Appellation means literally, as
the calling of something.
In logic, it means the function
of term denominating another
term, or conversely, the
denomination of a term by
another.
 The denominating tem is called
the appellant, and the
denominated term is called the
appellate.
Example:
a good logician

(appellant) (appellate)
1.Material and Formal Material
when the appellant is applied
only to the subject, as identified
by the nature or qualification
expressed.
Examples:
- A faithful artist (loyal man)
- A poor teacher (a financially hard
up man or woman)
 Formal when the appellant is
applied to the subject as
qualified by the nature or
qualification expressed.
Example:
- a faithful artist (an exact
reproducer)
- a poor teacher (not adept in
teaching)
2. Precise and Imprecise Precise when
the sense of the appellation is definite
and clear.
Example:
Excellent students are assets to colleges
and universities.
Imprecise when the sense of
appellation is not definite and clear.
Example:
Poor students are burden to colleges
and universities (may mean financially
poor or academically poor)
 Definitionis a linguistic device
that provides an explanation
or demonstration about the
use of term.
It may be viewed as
explanation of unfamiliar term
by using a familiar term which
is a common technique
called definition by synonyms.
 The use of a term is highlighted in
terms of the intention and
extension in the context of a
language game.
A definition is complete if
statement of the intention and
some typical examples of its
extension are clearly provided.
It is a statement that gives the
meaning of a term or a statement
which explains what a term
means.
 Taking it broadly, it may mean
either:
a) the verbal manifestation of the
meaning of a term; or
b) The logical manifestations of
the conceptual features of an
idea; or
c) The conceptual manifestation
of the nature of an object.
 Generally, analytic definition
has two elements, namely,
definiendum and definiens.
However, a third element is
added, to wit: denotata.
Isthe term to be
defined.
 Isa statement or phrase
that explains or describes
the defining property of the
definiendum.
Provides the concrete
samples of the extension
of the definiendum.
 The definiens consists of two parts
namely: genus and the differentia.
The GENUS is the wider concept of
which the definiendum is a
member species.
The job of the DIFFERENTIA is to
state the traits or characteristics
that make the definiendum
different from other species in the
genus.
DEFINIENDUM DEFINIENS DENOTATA

Genus Differentia

A bird is an animal with feathers such as chicken, owl and

ostrich.

A bird is an animal that flies such as dove, eagle.

1. Normal Definition merely explains or indicates
the term as such, not the thing signified by the
term. The several ways to start it are as follows:
a. By giving the etymology of a term, (root word,
derivation, origin)
Example: Philosophy means love of wisdom
(philos, love; sophia, wisdom)
b. By giving synonym or equivalent term. However,
the use of synonym is incomplete and circular.
Example: Idea means concept. An alien
means foreigner.
2. Connotative Definition gives the
essential characteristics (qualities)
possessed in common by the
individuals (referents denoted by a
term). Thus, some logicians call this
process essential definition because it
explains the essence or nature of the
terms referent.
Aristotle called this definition by genus
and difference. By the latter is meant
the property of a thing has in common
with other things belonging to the same
 By the former, the essential
property of a thing differentiates it
from other things belonging to the
same class.

Examples:
Science is that property of Logic
which it has in common with other
studies.

Man is a rational animal.

3. Denotative Definition makes the meaning
of a term clear by the application of this term to
its referent. This kind of definition may be called
demonstrative, enumerative, ostensive, or
extensive by pointing out the object meant, or
by drawing it by way of identification.

Examples:
What is a chalk? This is a piece of chalk.

What are amphibians? Frogs and turtles are

amphibians.

What is a tree? Coconut is a tree. Mango is a

tree.
 Thistype of definition is
incomplete and does not
provide full understanding
of the use of the term
defined.
4. Descriptive Definition gives
the meaning of a term by
enumerating the characteristics,
whether essential or accidental,
of the referent of that term. The
ways of describing the referent
of a term are as follows:
a. By giving the property of
the referent (property refers
to the natural character of
a thing which flows from its
essence)
Example:
Man is an animal capable of
articulate speech.
b. By giving the maker (efficient
cause) or the purpose (final
cause) of the referent.

Examples:
A house is a residence built by
carpenters.
A chair is a furniture used for
sitting.
Other types of definitions
may be coined as:
1. Reportive or lexical
definition;
2. Stipulative definition;
and
3. Operational definition.
 It provides information about how a term is being
used in the same way in numerous language
games.
These are reports about standard use or
conventional use of the term.
This usage consists of how the term is used by
actual people in numerous real-life situations.
It is defined with dictionary definitions.

Examples:
Sex: The character of being male or female.
Environment: All surrounding things, conditions,
influences or forces affecting or modifying growth
and development.
 It proposes to use a term in a very specialized
way in a specific language game.
There is circumscription of the use of a term such
as conducting scientific research, enacting laws,
coining a term in Philosophy, or making an
invention.
Thus, to introduce scientific, philosophical, or
technical terms, it is done through stipulative
definition.
Examples:
Agricultural land: refers to land devoted to
agricultural activity as defined in this act and not
classified as mineral, forest, residential, commercial
or industrial land (RA no. 6657, Section 3(c)).
Hypothesis: an
assumption, a theory of a
research study.

Mental Operation: An act

of the mind revolving
around the process of
apprehension, judgments,
and reasoning.
 It applies to dispositional terms in the
sciences like magnetic, soluble
temperature, electric change, elastic,
conductor oh heat and electricity.
This type of definition was invented by a
certain Percy Bridgman who advocated
that all scientific should be defined in
terms of performable operations.
His technique anchors theoretical terms
as well as dispositional terms on the
plane of observation.
 He distinguished two types of operations,
namely:
a. instrumental operations performed by
various devices for observations and
measurement.
Example:
Magnetic- an object is magnetic if and only if
you actually perform the following operations:
put iron filings near the object and observe that
the iron filings cling or attach to the object.

Soluble- sugar is soluble in water if and only if

you actually perform the following operations:
b. Paper and pencil
operation, verbal operation
and thought experiment.

Example:
Binet IQ test = IQ = MA / CA x
100
(Mental ability over
chronological age)
The rules are as follows:
1. The definition (definiens) should
be clearer than the term to be
defines (definiendum). The latter
should not appear in the former.
Examples:
Metal is a metallic substance.
A philosopher is one who
philosophizes.
Love means never hanging to say
you are sorry.
2. The definition must be positive/ affirmative.
Examples:
Man is a rational animal.
The mind is an intangible and invisible entity.

3. Definition must not be circular. Avoid

defining by synonym or by ostensive
definitions.
Examples:
An alien is a foreigner.
Belief is having faith, and faith is having belief
4. The definition must be adequate. It
must tally exactly with the object to
be defined. The definiendum must
have the same extension as the
definiens, that is, one must be neither
narrower nor broader than the other.
Example:
Man is a rational animal and not
man is an animal, otherwise, the
concept of man is given wide or
broad definition.
 ENUNCIATION is the product of
the second mental operation.
It m ay be otherwise called
pronouncement, declaration,
rendition or simply judgment.
This judgment presupposes
that the mind has already
formed an idea by simple
apprehension.
The mind now compares this
idea with another idea.
 Then it pronounces or renders
judgment whether one idea
agrees or disagrees with the
other.
This mental operation is called
JUDGMENT.
For example, we have two ideas:
dog and animal. We
enunciate: A dog is an animal.
the former is a subject idea, while
the latter is a predicate idea.
There are three (3) elements that make
every judgment or enunciation, to wit:
1. Two ideas existing in the mind;
2. Comparison of the two ideas by the
mind; and
3. Predication or pronouncement by the
mind on the agreement or the
disagreement of the two ideas.

* Note: the first two (elements) constitute

the material elements, while the third, the
formal element.
 Judgment may be affirmative
or negative.
Judgment is affirmative when
two sides agree or when the
comprehension of the subject
idea contains all the essential
notes of the predicate idea.
P Animal

S Ma
n
 On the other hand, judgment is negative when
two ideas disagree or when the subject idea
does not have all the essential notes of the
predicate idea and vice versa.
The subject have at least one note that is not
found in the predicate, and the predicate, one
note that is not found in the subject.

S P

S is not P A man is not a brute.

P is not S A brute is not a man.
a. Immediate or Intuitive and Mediate or
Derived
Immediate expressed agreement or
disagreement of two concepts is
perceived at once, whether from the
mental analysis of the concepts alone or
from direct experience.

Examples: Man is mortal.

Ice is solid.
 Mediate or derived the
expressed agreement or
disagreement of two concepts
is perceived through a
process of inference.

Example: Human soul is

immortal.
b. Analytical (or a priori or rational)
and Synthetical (a posteriori or
empirical)

Analytical the expressed agreement

or disagreement of the predicate
with the subject is known from
mental analysis alone.

example: Man is corruptible or

Man is incorruptible.
 Synthetical
the expressed
agreement or
disagreement of the
predicate with the subject
is known only through
experience.

Example: The earth is round.

 Proposition is defined as the
external manifestation of the
mental enunciation or
pronouncement.
It is declarative sentence which
expresses a relation of
affirmation or denial between
two terms.
It is a statement in which
something is either affirmed or
Example:
Philosophy students are
studious.
Students subject term
Studious predicate term
A proposition is negative when
the subject term is denied or
negated by the predicate
term.
Example:
Philosophy students are not
studious.
 Proposition is similar or
synonymous to statement. Both
affirm or deny and are intimately
related to truth or falsity.
Examples:
Good luck!
Good- bye!
Ouch! Aray!
Why are you here in the school
campus?
Stop, look, listen!
1. Proposition is expressed in the
present tense, indicative mood.
2. Elements of a proposition are:

A. Matter = subject and

predicate
B. Form = copula (is or are)
 Proposition and definition are not the
same.
The former is a statement in which
something is either affirmed or
denied, whereas, the latter, is a
statement that gives meaning of a
term.

Examples:
Cruz is a Philosophy professor
Logic is the science and art of
Proposition is classified
into:
1. Categorical
2. Hypothetical
3. Modal
A categorical proposition is one which
gives a direct assertion of agreement
or disagreement between the subject
term.
It is a simple proposition with only one
subject and one predicate.
Simply a proposition is categorical
when the predicate term is either
affirmed or denied of the subject term
outright, without restrictions or
Examples:
All women are beautiful.
No man is brute.
Some plants are not green.
Philosophers are thinkers.
 In the light of the foregoing definitions
and examples, a categorical
proposition has three (3) elements or
components, namely:
1. Subject term the term about which
something is affirmed or denied.
2. Predicate term the term which is
either affirmed or denied of the
subject.
3. Copula that which expresses
affirmation or denial in the proposition.
It is always the present tense form of
To illustrate:
SUBJECT (S) COPULA (C) PREDICATE (P)
That About Am, is, are That Which Is
Which Am, not, is not,
Are not

S + C + P = Categorical Proposition
Categorical proposition
has two (2) properties,
namely:
1. Quantity; and
2. Quality
 The types of categorical
proposition according to
quantity are:
a. Singular one whose subject
term applies to a single
individual only.
Example: Sharon is a Megastar.
b. Particular if its subject applies to
an indefinite number of referents or
individuals or subjects.
Examples:
Almost all my students in
Philosophy are intelligent.
Some students are diligent, other
students are lazy.
c. Universal if its subject term
applies distributively to each and all
of its referent; or simply, one whose
subject term stands for each and all
individuals to which it is applied.
Examples:
All men are creatures of God.
No man is perfect.
Clean environment is vital to life.
d. Collective if its subject term
applies to a collective or group
of individuals taken as a unit.
Examples:
Philosophy class is interesting.
The crowd is restless.
Filipino family is religious.
 The types of categorical propositions
according to quality are as follows:

a. Affirmative if there is an agreement

between the subject term and the predicate
term, or when the subject and predicate
terms are united by the copula and their
relationship is affirmed.

Examples:
All students are diligent.
Filipino farmers are hardworking.
Filipinos are resilient.
a. Negative if there is disagreement
between the subject term and the
predicate term. The latter is denied of
the former. The negation is expressed by
the copula is not, are not, or am
not, or no.
Examples:
Man is not a brute.
I am not noisy.
No person is perfect.
 Quantity and quality may be
combined to form the four (4)
standards of categorical
proposition, namely:
1. Universal-affirmative (A)
2. Universal-negative (E)
3. Particular-affirmative (I)
4. Particular-negative (O)
 Logicians use the letter A for a
universal affirmative proposition. E for
a universal negative. I for particular
affirmative, and O for particular
negative.
The letters A and I come from the
Latin word Affirmo which means I
affirm, while the E and O from the
word Nego, I deny or negate.
 TheA propositions are
indicated by words like all,
every, each, everyone,
everything, everybody, which
are called quantifiers.
Examples:
All men are mortal.
Every student is an employee.
Note:
General statements and
singular propositions are
considered A propositions.
Examples:
Honesty is the best policy.
Johnny is single.
 E
propositions are indicated
by words like not, no, no one,
none, nobody, nothing.
Examples:
No man is an island.
Nobody is perfect.
Nothing is impossible.
Marriage is not a joke.
Note:
General statements and
singular propositions whose
copula is negative are E
propositions.
Examples:
That today is Monday is not
true.
Peter is not married.
I propositions are
indicated by words such as
some, someone,
something, somebody,
several, a few with an
affirmative copula.
Example:
Some students are
 Opropositions are indicated
by words like some, someone,
something, somebody, with a
negative copula.
Example:
Some students are not serious
in their studies.
 QUALITY
Affirmative Negative
Q Universal A E
U
A
N
T
Particular I O
I
T
Y
 The predicate term of the
categorical propositions has
quantity.
Its quantity depends upon the
quality of the proposition.
There are two rules to be
observed in determining the
quantity of the predicate term.
 In an affirmative proposition, the
predicate is always applied to its
subject according to the whole of
its comprehension and according
to a part of its extension.
Briefly, the rule means that the
predicate of an affirmative
proposition is generally particular.
Example: Using A proposition
The Muslims in Mindanao are Filipinos.

Muslims

Filipinos
Example: Using an I proposition
Some men are generous to the
poor.

Men who
Some
are
men
generous
1. The whole comprehension of
the term Filipinos applies to
Muslims.
2. Only part of the extension of
Filipinos applies to
Muslims.
 In a negative proposition, the
predicate is always denied of the
subject according to only a part
of its comprehension, but denied
according to the whole of its
extension (total extension).
The last of the rule means that the
predicate of a negative
proposition is always universal.
Example: Using the E proposition.
Honest men are not thieves.

Thieves
Honest
Men
Example: using an O proposition.
Most politicians are not honest.

Honest
Most
Politicians
 The four standard forms of
categorical propositions may
be akin to opposition of
circumstantially quantified
propositions.
The latter are those affected
by contingencies of time,
place, or circumstance.
 For A proposition: always, in all
instances, under all circumstances,
everywhere, by all means
For E proposition: never, nowhere,
under no circumstance, by no means
For I proposition: sometimes,
occasionally, somewhere, under
some circumstances
For O proposition: sometimes not, not
always
Honesty is Honesty is
always the never the
best policy. best policy.

A E

I O
Honesty is
Honesty is not
sometimes
always the
the best
best policy.
policy.
 The basic logical structure of
categorical proposition is: subject-
copula-predicate (S-C-P)
arrangement.
However, there are propositions
which do not display their logical
structure.
Propositions like these must be
reduced or reworded in a manner to
Examples:
God creates people God is the
creator of people.
Mario courts Maria Mario is the
suitor of Maria.
Birds fly Birds are flying animals.
 Logical opposition of
propositions is the relation of
truth and falsity existing
between propositions with the
same subject and predicate
but with different quantity or
quality or both quantity and
quality.
This is the disagreement of
difference as to quantity or
quality, or both, of two
propositions having the
same subject and the same
predicate.
There are four kinds of
logical opposition. They are
as follows:
1. Contradictory
2. Contrary
3. Sub-contrary
4. Sub-altern
Contradictory opposition
is one, which exist
between two
propositions that differ in
both quality and
quantity.
1. If one of the pair of opposition is
true, the other is false.
2. If one proposition is false, the
other is true.
Example:
Every dog is an animal.
Some dogs are not animals.
No dog is an animal.
Some dogs are animals.
Contrary opposition is
one, which exists
between two universal
propositions that differ in
quality.
1. If one of the opposed propositions is
true, the other is false.
2. If one of them is false, the other is
doubtful. The propositions can be
both false at the same time, but can
never be true at the same time
(doubtful).
Examples:
All Muslims are Filipino.
No Muslims are Filipinos.
All Filipinos are Muslims.
Sub-contrary opposition is
one, which exists between
two particular propositions
that differ in quality.
1. If one of the opposed
propositions is false, the other is
true.
2. If one of them is true, the other is
doubtful.
Examples:
Some students are absent.
Some students are not absent.
Some students are not absent.
Some students are absent.
Sub-altern opposition is
one, which exists
between two
propositions that differ in
quantity.
1. If the universal proposition is true,
the particular one is also true. But
if the universal is false, the
particular is doubtful.
Examples:
All persons are human.
Some persons are human.
No person is human.
Some persons are not human.
2. If the particular proposition is
true, the universal one is doubtful.
But if the particular is false, the
universal is false.
Examples:
Some plants are flowers.
All plants are flowers.
Some roses are not flowers.
All roses are not flowers.
 Under the foregoing rules, we
can draw or infer the truth or
falsity of one proposition from
the truth or falsity of another
proposition.
This reasoning is known as
immediate inference.
1. If A is true, E is false If A is false, O is true.
I is true. E is doubtful.
O is true. I is doubtful.
2. If E is true, A is false. If E is false, I is true.
I is false. A is true.
O is false. O is doubtful.
3. If I is true, A is false. If I is false, A is false.
A is doubtful. E is true.
O is doubtful. O is true.
4. If O is true, A is false. If O is false, A is true.
E is doubtful. E is false.
 What is a Hypothetical Proposition?
A hypothetical proposition is one,
which expresses the dependence of
one categorical statement, which is
either affirmative or negative on
another categorical statement, which
may also be negative.
It expresses a relation of dependence
such as an opposition or likeness
between two clauses.
1. The conditional,
2. The disjunctive, and
3. The conjunctive
propositions.
 Conditional proposition is one,
which states that the truth of an
affirmative or denial is
acceptable to the mind on
condition that the truth of
another affirmation or denial is
confirmed or verified.
It is one, which expresses a
relation of dependence
 The expressed relation points out that
one proposition necessarily follows the
other because of a definite condition.
Note:
The propositions containing a
hypothetical proposition are joined by if-
then, unless, when, where, suppose or in
case.
An if-then proposition has two parts or
components, namely:
1. Antecedent or implicans, and
 The antecedent (implicans) contains
the condition., while the consequent
(implicate) expresses the statement
that follows the acceptance of the
condition.
Examples:
If my students are studious, then they
will easily pass LOGIC.
If school education is quality, then its
graduates are professionally
competent.
 The given examples show strict
relation between the
antecedent and the
consequent. The truth of the
latter necessarily follows from
the truth of the former.
The truth depends on the
relation between the two
propositions and not on the
 Disjunctive proposition is one,
whose subject or predicate
consists of parts which exclude
each other.
It contains an either.or
statement indicating that the
implied judgments cannot be
true all together or false all
together.
 The parts of a disjunction are
called disjuncts or alternants.
Examples:
My students are either awake
or sleepy in class.
That person is either a woman
or a man.
Either you or I am rich.
1. Perfect(proper,
complete, or strict)
2. Imperfect (improper,
incomplete, or broad)
A disjunction is perfect if and
when/where the statements or
judgments is implied can neither be
true nor false together at the same
time.
The parts (disjuncts) are mutually
exclusive, that is, one disjunct
necessarily excludes the other.
Examples:
A person is either a saint or a sinner.
It is either hot or not hot.
A disjunctive is imperfect when and
where the judgments or statements can
be true together but never false
together, that is, at least one of the
disjuncts is true.
These disjuncts are not exclusive one
part does not necessarily exclude the
other.
Examples:
The students have either a ballpoint pen
or a notebook.
 Conjunctive Proposition is one
which denies that two (2)
contrary predicates together can
be true of the same subject at the
same time.
It denies the simultaneous
probability of two alternatives.
The component parts of a
conjunctive proposition are
A student cannot be talkative and
attentive to his professor at the same
time.
Teachers cannot be present and absent
in school at the same time.
Note: Conjunctive propositions may be
reduced to two connective hypothetical
propositions or a combination of
hypothetical and categorical
propositions.
Example:
 Modal proposition is a composite
single sentence in which the copula
is modified to express the manner or
mode in which the predicate
belongs to the subject term.
It does not only affirm or deny the
predicate of the subject but also
states the manner or mode in which
the predicate is identified with, or
denied of the subject.
 Simply, it states not only the
connection of the predicate to the
subject but also declares how the
predicate is connected or not
connected to the subject.
The objective connection between
the subject term and the predicate
term is expressed in the copula in four
modes, namely:
1. Necessary
2. Contingent
3. Possible
A necessary modal proposition is
one which states that the
predicate belongs to the subject,
and must belong to it.
It is one, which cannot be
otherwise: it must be so.
There must be a necessary
relationship between the subject
term and the predicate term.
 The indicative expressions for this
proposition are: must be, is
necessary, has to be, cannot be
not.
Examples:
A square must be a shape with
four sides.
Man is necessarily mortal.
A circle has to be round.
 The contingent modal
proposition is one which states
that the predicate actually
belongs or is connected to the
subject but does not necessarily
have to be.
It expresses a contingent truth,
that is, something accidentally
existing but need to be, or it
could be, or it could not have to
 The indicative expressions for this
proposition are : need not be, is
not necessarily, does not have to
be.
Examples:
My students need not be late.
The college faculty need not
wear their uniform today.
 Possible modal proposition
expresses a possible relationship
or identity between the subject
and the predicate.
The indicative expressions for this
proposition are: can be, is
possible, Is able to be, need to
be, not.
Example:
Success in life can be attained
through hard work.
 Impossible modal proposition
states that the predicate does not
belong to the subject and it can
never be found in the latter.
The indicative expressions for this
proposition are: cannot be, is not
possible, is able to be, must not
be, is never.
Example:
A square is not a triangle.
 Multiple or Compound Categorical
Propositions are those which contain two
or more sentences or several assertions or
simple propositions that are joined
together to form a whole or complete
thought.
Some of these assertions are overly
multiple (evidently, explicitly, expressedly,
or obviously), while others covertly multiple
(apparently, implicitly, impliedly, or less
 The overtly multiple propositions
are:
Copulative
Adversative
Relative
Causal
 In the latter, there is need for
exposition to show the multiplicity
of propositions.
It is exponible because the
proposition is an implicit or
apparent conjunction of two ro
more simple propositions that can
be constructed.
 Copulative proposition is one
whose several objects or
predicates are joined by: and,
neither, nor, both.and, not
only but also.
Examples:
Neither my students nor I am rich.
Our teacher is a philosopher and
writer.
Jose and Pedro are students and
candidates for graduation.
 Adversative proposition is one
whose several subjects or
predicates are joined by: but,
even though, even if, although,
despite, in spite of, whereas,
nevertheless, still, yet.
Examples:
The Filipino masses are poor, yet
they are happy.
Rural students are diligent, despite
their financial difficulties.
 Relative proposition is one which
expresses a relationship of time
and/or place between statements or
sentences.
It is expressed by: after, during,
before, when.then, where.there,
until, while.
Examples:
Before students take any
examination, they are expected to
be prepared.
Where the treasure is, there my heart
 Casual proposition is one in which two
statements are combined in such a
way that one is given as the reason of
or cause for the other.
It is expressed by: for, because,
inasmuch as, insofar as, since, for this
reason, due to the fact.
Example:
The accused is guilty because his guilt
is proven beyond reasonable doubt.
 On the other hand, the covertly
multiple propositions include:
1. Exclusive
2. Exceptive
3. Reduplicative
4. Specificative
5. Comparative
 Exclusive proposition is one which
expresses exclusiveness.
It posits that the predicate is
attributable only or belonging to
the subject named.
It is expressed by limiting particles:
only, alone, none but or solely.
Examples: None but the happy heart
can know my joy.
Reduced simple propositions:
1. The happy heart can know my joy.
2. Others whose hearts are not happy
cannot know my joy.

God is the Mover unmoved.

1. God is the mover unmoved
2. No other being is unmoved.
 Exceptive proposition which
expresses exception that is part of
the extension of the predicate
does not apply the subject or vice
versa.
This is expressed by the words:
except, save, but, with the
exception of.
Example: All animals, except man,
are irrational.
1. All brutes are irrational.
 Reduplicative proposition is one which
implies the reason or cause for the
connection between the subject and
predicate by duplicating it with the
expressions: as such, as.
Examples: Students, as students, must
be learners in the educative process.
1. Students are learners.
2. They are students.
Teachers, as such, are professionals.
1. Teachers are professionals.
2. They are teachers.
 Specificative proposition implies
the time element or condition of
the connection between subject
and predicate.
It is expressed by: as a.
Example: Peter, as a philosophy
student, participates in the debate.
1. Peter participates in the debate.
2. Because Peter is a philosophy
student.
 Comparative proposition is one whose
subject or predicate is appraised by
the degree of comparison as being
less, greater or equal. The appraisal
uses the expressions: less than, greater
than, equal to, or asas.
Example: Men are more reasonable
than women.
1. Men are reasonable.
2. Women are reasonable.
3. The reasonableness of men is greater
than that of women.
 Itis the first mental act
whereby we abstracted form
and seize upon the essential
elements of the things that we
perceive and acquire their
nature or substance or
essence.
 Substance

Nature Essence
Substance

Nature Essenc
e
Protein

Carbohydrate
s

Fish

Rice
 To express our ideas we symbolize
them with terms and words, define
and classify to make them clear
and in logical order.
Once an idea is formed, we
compare it with another idea, and
enunciate the agreement or
disagreement between a subject
idea and a predicate idea.
When we enunciate their
relationship, we make or render
 As we communicate our judgment in
terms or words, we form proposition.
Examples:
Protein is the substance of fish, or
Protein is the essence that makes a
fish what it is, or
Protein is the nature that fish can give.
Carbohydrates is the substance of
rice, or
Carbohydrates is the essence that
makes a rice what it is, or
1. Essence that which makes a thing what it
is.
2. Substance something that underlies all
phenomena and in which accidents or
attributes inhere; something that subsists by
itself.
3. Nature what a thing really is, and what it
can be.
The mind now compares one judgment with
another judgment.
The mind pronounces and infers from the truth
or falsity of one proposition to the truth or
 Mental Mental Expression Logical
Operation Product Issue

Reasoning Argument Syllogism Inference

 What is Reasoning?
Reasoning is understood as a mental
process whereby we pass from what we
know (known) to what we do not know
(unknown).
It means inferential thinking, that is, it is
the mental act wherewith, from truths
already known with uncertainty, the mind
proceeds to the certain knowledge, or to
the certain establishment of another truth
by way of inference from the former.
 Itcan be characterized as any
sequence of statements in which
one statement a makes a claim
that something is true or false,
good or bad, right or wrong and
desirable and undesirable, on the
basis of the evidence of another
statements.
The latter statements are referred
to as premises, while the former,
claim the conclusion.
 Thisreasoning process is, otherwise
called inference which is simply
the process of drawing a
consequent (conclusion) from an
antecedent or a combination of
antecedents (premises).
The sequence is signified by:
but, for the minor premise and
hence, therefore(ergo),
consequently, and so,
accordingly, thus, or for this
 ANTECEDENT (Premises)

INFERENCE SEQUENCE

CONSEQUENT (Conclusions)
 The mental product or reasoning or
inferential thinking is the argument.
An argument is a set of three
judgments, namely: the major
premise, minor premise, and the
conclusion.
The external expression of the
argument is referred to as the
syllogism.
Syllogism comes from the Greek word
syn logos which means to think in a
 This kind of argument can be considered
valid or invalid, sound or unsound.
Validity, as its property, is a technical term
which is applicable only to the truth or
falsity of inferential thinking.
Thus, a deductive argument is said to be
valid when the conclusion is true because
of its true premises, or false premises with
true conclusion, or false premises with
false conclusion.
 PREMISES INFERENCE CONCLUSION
1. True Valid True
2. False Valid True
3. False Valid False
4. True Invalid False
5. True and Invalid True
False
1. True premises True conclusion
Board passers are professionals
But nurses are board passers
Ergo, nurses are professionals
2. False premises True conclusion
Board passers are non-professionals
But nurses are non-professionals
Ergo, nurses are board passers.
3. False premises False conclusion
Non-board passers are non-
professionals
But nurses are non-board passers
Ergo, nurses are non-professionals

4. True premises False conclusion

Non-board passers are
professionals
But nurses are professionals
Ergo, nurses are non-board passers
5. True and false premises false
conclusion
All nurses are Board passers
But all mothers are nurses,
Ergo, all mothers are Board
passers.
A sound argument is one whose
premises and conclusion are both
true through valid inference.
The combination of truth and
validity constitutes soundness of
argument.
Absence of this combination
makes any argument unsound.
PREMISES INFERENCE CONCLUSION SOUNDNESS

True Valid True Sound

 Spiritsare incorruptible.
But angels are spirits.
Ergo, angels are incorruptible.
The elements of syllogism are as
follows:
1. Material
2. formal
 Material elements are of two (2)
kinds: the remote and the proximate.
The remote has three (3) universal
terms, namely:
1. The subject term (minor term)
2. The predicate term (major term)
3. The middle term
Example:
All plants are living substances
All rocks are not living substances.
All plants are not rocks.
 Plants = subject term
Rocks = predicate term
Living substances = middle term
On the other hand, the proximate
material elements are the three (3)
propositions, namely:
1. The major premise
2. The minor premise
3. The conclusion
 The formal element of a syllogism is logical
necessity or consequence. It is the proper
disposition or arrangement of the terms and
propositions necessary to produce the
conclusion.
Example: animal
All animals are sensient
The dog is an animal sensien
t
The dog is sensient
dog
 There are two (2) general types of
inference, namely: immediate and
mediate.
The former includes: logical
opposition, conversion, obversion,
possibility, and actuality.
The latter includes: deduction
(categorical and hypothetical
syllogism and other forms of
inference) and induction with
applicable fallacies.
 Immediate inference is a process of
reasoning which consists in passing
directly from one proposition, without
the aid of a second proposition or a
third term called medium, to a new
proposition but not to anew truth.
It is one in which we pass directly from
a single premise to a conclusion or
from one proposition to another which
is different but which necessarily
follows from it.
 All sins are evil acts.
Therefore, all evil acts are sins.
All students are diligent.
Therefore, some students are
diligent.
 There are several types of
immediate inference. They are as
follows:
1. Oppositional (logical opposition)
2. Conversion
3. Obversion
4. Possibility
5. Actuality
 Oppositional inference refers to the
logical opposition which is
represented/ illustrated by the
traditional square of opposition.
Logical opposition means
repugnance which exists between
two propositions having the same
subject and predicate but differing in
quantity or in quality, or in both
quantity and quality.
 The kinds of logical opposition
are as follows:
a. Contrary
b. Contradictory
c. Sub-altern
d. Sub-contrary
 Contraries cannot be both true. If
one is true, the other must be false
(doubtful, unknown, undetermined).
Examples:
If A is true, E is false.
If E is true, A is false.
If A is false, E is doubtful, unknown.
If E is false, A is doubtful,
undetermined.
 If all Ilocanos are Filipinos Tue
So no Ilocano is Filipino False
If no Filipinos are Malaysians True
Then all Filipinos are Malaysians
False
All Filipinos are Chinese False
No Filipino is a Chinese - Doubtful
1. Contradiction cannot be both true.
2. Contradiction cannot be both false.
Guide:
If A is true, O is false. If A is false, O is true.
If E is true, I is false. If E is false, I is true.
If I is true, E is false. If I is false, E is true.
If O is true, A is false. If O is false, A is true.
 All cats are animals True
Some cats are not animals False
No man is good False
Some men are good True
All men are honest False
Some men are not honest - True
1. The truth of the universal (sub-
alternant) determines the truth
of the particular (sub-alternate),
but the truth of the particular
does not necessarily determine
the truth of the universal.
2. The falsity of the particular
determines the falsity of the
universal, but the falsity of
the universal does not
necessarily determine the
falsity of the particular.
 If A is true, I is also true.
If I is true, A is doubtful.
If E is true, On is also true.
If O is true, E is doubtful.
If I is false, A is also false.
If A is false, I is undetermined.
If O is false, E is also false.
If E is false, O is doubtful.
All men are good true
Some men are good true
No man is honest false
1. Sub-contraries cannot be
both false. If either one of
them is false, the other must
be true.
2. Sub-contraries may be both
true. If either one of them is
true, the other may be true.
 If I is false, O is true.
If O is false, I is true.
If I is true, O is doubtful.
If O is true, I is doubtful.
If it is false that some men are good,
then it is true that some men are not
good.
If it is true that some men are good, then
it is doubtful then some men are not
 Conversion is a form of immediate
inference in which the subject and
predicate of a given proposition are
transposed without changing the
quality and truth of the proposition.
It is the re-expression of a proposition b
y interchanging places of the subject
and predicate while preserving its
quality.
The original proposition is called the
convertend, while the new proposition,
1. The convertend must be in logical
form or reduced to logical form.
2. The quality and truth of the
convertend must be preserved.
3. No term shall be distributed in the
converse unless it is distributed in the
convertend. If a term is used only as
particular in the convertend, it should
not be used as universal in the
No horse is a dog
convertend
No dog is a horse
converse
 There are two kind of conversion.
It may be simple or accidental.
The former is one in which the
subject and the predicate terms
are interchanged preserving,
though, the quantity of either,
while the latter, the quantity of
either predicate and subject
terms is lessened.
 No horse is a dog convertend
No dog is a horse converse
Some students are good athletes.
Some good athletes are students.
For accidental conversion
All physicians are professionals.
Some professionals are physicians.
 Rules for conversion are also applied
to A, E, I, and O propositions to wit:
A= accidental conversion (A E)
E= simple or accidental conversion (E
E, E O)
I= simple conversion (I I)
O= no conversion
Reason: violation of Rule 3
 Obversion (equipollence,
permutation, or infinitum) is a process
of immediate inference whereby an
affirmative proposition is stated
negatively and a negative proposition
may be stated affirmatively.
Its purpose is to take an original
proposition and by the addition or
subtraction of one or two negations to
make a second proposition which is
equivalent in meaning to that of the
first.
 Itis the re-expression of a
proposition by retaining the
subject and its quantity, while
changing the quality of the
proposition and changing the
predicate to its contradictory.
Simply, in obversion, the first
statement cannot deny the
second or subsequent statement
because both mean the same
thing.
 The first statement is called
obvertend, while the second,
obverse.
Rules of Obversion:
1. Retain the subject of the
obvertend.
2. Change the quality of the
obvertend.
3. Retain the quantity of the
obvertend.
4. Contradict the predicate of the
 These rules are applied to the A,
E, I, and O propositions, thus:
A-E= All S is P obvertend
E-A= No S is non-P obverse
I O= Some S is P obvertend
O I= Some S is non- P - obverse
 All men are rational obvertend
All men are not irrational obverse
All men are mortal obvertend
No men are immortal obverse
No man is perfect obvertend
All men are imperfect obverse
Some professionals are taxpayers.
Some professionals are non-
taxpayers.
Some students are thoughtful.
 Differences:
Possibilitysignifies a perfection not as
yet possessed or realized. It refers to
condition, situation, or state of being
that does not yet exist but can exist.
Actuality signifies a perfection now
possessed. It refers to any condition,
situation or state of being that exist
here and now.
 In the light of the foregoing
distinction, four-fold logical
problems of immediate inference
arise, to wit:
1. If a thing is possible, does it mean it
is actual?
2. If a thing is actual, does it follow
that it is possible?
3. If a thing does not yet exist, does it
necessarily follow that it cannot
exist?
1. From possibility to actuality, inference is
not valid.
If a thing can exist, we cannot legitimately
infer that it does not exist. The fact that it
can be does not necessarily mean that it is.
Examples:
You can marry; therefore, you are married.
You can earn a degree from the university
or college; therefore you have earned it.
In both cases, the inference is
not valid. The fact that you can
marry does not logically mean
that you are already married. It
is only a possibility. What is
possible is not actual.
2. From actuality to possibility,
inference is valid.
From a fact that a thing exists, we
can validly infer that it is possible.
Example:
Some men are married; therefore,
marriage is possible, i.e. men can
marry.
3. From non-actuality to impossibility,
inference is not valid.
If a thing does not yet exist, we cannot
logically conclude that it cannot exist.
Example:
You are not yet married; therefore you
cannot marry.
This is not valid. From the fact that you are
not yet married, one cannot logically infer
that you cannot marry anymore. Similarly,
since you are not yet a graduate, it does
not necessarily follow that you cannot
graduate.
4. From impossibility to non-
actuality, inference is valid.
If it is impossible for a thing to exist,
we can validly infer that it does not
exist anywhere else.
Example:
A square circle is impossible.
Therefore, we can logically
conclude that a square circle is
nowhere to be found.
 Mediate inference is the
process of reasoning whereby
the mind passes from two
propositions which are
premises to a new proposition
called the conclusion through
a mediation of a third term
called a middle term.
 Itis also viewed as one in which we
derive a conclusion from two or
more premises taken jointly.
Mediate inference is generally
classified into : deduction and
induction.
Deductive inference is one in which
we pass from the universal to the
particular, while in Induction
inference , from two or more
particular premises to a general
 In mediate inference, the verbal
expression is called the
argumentation.
Argumentation is understood as a
discourse, which logically deduces
one proposition from others. It takes
the form of the syllogism.
Syllogism is an argumentation in
which two known propositions that
contain a common idea, and one at
least of which is universal, a third
proposition, different from the two
 The structure of the syllogism
consists of three (3) declarative
sentences, namely:
a. The major premise
b. The minor premise
c. A conclusion
The premises have three (3) terms:
a. Major term
b. Minor term
c. Middle term
 There are two types of syllogisms, namely:
categorical syllogism and hypothetical
syllogism.
Examples:
CATEGORICAL HYPOTHETICAL
SYLLOGISM SYLLOGISM
Major premise= All Major premise = If
spirits are immortal.
there is life, there is
Minor premise = My
soul is a spirit. hope.
Conclusion = Minor premise = But
Therefore, my soul is there is hope.
immortal Conclusion =
Major term = soul Therefore, there is
Middle term = spirit/s life.
 Categorical syllogism is an oral or
written discourse showing the
agreement or disagreement between
two terms on the basis of their
respective relation to a common third
term.
It is any argumentation in which, from
two propositions called premises, we
concluded a third proposition called
the conclusion, which is so related to
the premises taken jointly that if the
 Simply it is a piece of
deductive mediate inference
which consists of three
categorical propositions, the
first two of which are premises,
and the third of which is the
conclusion.
 In the light of the foregoing
definitions, categorical syllogism
is, thus, structurally presented
below:
STRUCTURE of CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM
Three Propositions Three Terms

Major premise Major term (P)

Minor premise Minor term (S)

Conclusion Middle term (M)

1. In the major premise, the major
term is compared to the middle
term.
2. In the minor premise, the minor
term is compared to the middle
term.
3. In the conclusion, the agreement
or disagreement between the
minor term and the major term is
 Major premise All Filipino women
(M), are simple (P).
Minor premise All Bulakeas (S), are
women (M).
Conclusion All Bulakeas (S), are
simple (P).
All M is P = major premise
All S is M = minor premise
Ergo, All S is P = Conclusion
 There are general principles of the
categorical syllogism. They are as
follows:
1. The Principle of Reciprocal Identity
If two terms are agree with a third term,
then these three terms are identical
with each other.
Illustration:
M is P (M agrees with P)
S is M (S is agree with M)
Ergo, S is P (S agrees with P)
2. The Principle of Reciprocal Non-
Identity
If two terms, one of which is identical
with a third term while the other is not,
then the three terms are not identical
with each other.
Illustration:
P is M (P agrees with M)
S is not M (S does not agree with M)
Ergo, S is not P (S does not agree with P)
3. The Dictum de Omni (The Law of
None)
What is denied universally of a term
is also denied of each of all
referents of that term.
Illustration: P

No M is P (P is denied of M) M
S
S is M (M is affirmed of S)
Ergo, S is P (P is denied of S)
No Filipinos are Indians.
All Negritos are Filipinos.
No Negritos are Indians.

P
S
 There are eight basic rules of
syllogisms, they area as follows:
Rule 1: The syllogism must contain
three terms only.
Example: Man is mortal.
But Mario is man.
Ergo, Mario is mortal.
Rule 2: No term can have a greater
extension in the conclusion that it
had in the premise.
Example:
All athletes are healthy.
(Particular) But athletes are
persons.
(Universal) Ergo, persons are
healthy.
Note: Violation of Rule 2 is
commission of fallacy of the illicit
Rule 3: the middle term should
not be found in the conclusion.
Example:
Men are rational animals.
But men are mortal.
Ergo, men are mortal rational
animals.
Rule 4: The middle term must be
universal at least once; however, it
may be taken universally twice in
the premises.
Examples:
Some philosophers are atheists.
But scientists are philosophers.
Ergo, scientists are atheists.
Pigs have two eyes.
Men have two eyes.
Men are pigs.
Note:
Violation is commission of
fallacy of undistributed
middle.
Rule 5: two affirmative premises
cannot give a negative conclusion
(Meaning: only an affirmative
conclusion can be drawn from two
affirmative premises).
Examples:
Imported canned goods are
cheap.
Corned beefs are imported
goods.
Every animal is sensient.
Rule 6: from two negative premises, no
conclusion can be inferred.
Examples:
A man is not an angel.
But a plant is not a man.
Ergo, what? Nothing follows.
Cora is not happy.
Glory is not Cora.
Ergo, Glory is not happy.
Note: Violation is commission of fallacy
of two negative premises.
Rule 8: Conclusion must be particular, if
one of the premises is particular, and
negative, if one premise is negative
(conclusion follows the weaker side).
Examples:
All Germans are Europeans.
Some men are Germans.
All men are Europeans.
No popes are infallible.
John Paul II is a pope.
John Paul II is not infallible.
 By the figure of syllogism we mean
that proper position of the middle
term (M) with respect to the major
term (P) and the minor term (S) in the
premise. Thus, the proper (fixed)
position is as follows:
S = always the subject
P = always the predicate of the
conclusion
 Except:
M = changes its position in the
following cases:
a. It is compared with P in the major
premise, and
b. It is compared with S in the minor
premise.
 These are four possible positions or
arrangements which give rise to four different
syllogistic figures. They are as follows:
1. First figure in this figure, the middle term is
the subject of the major premise and the
predicate of the minor premise
Illustration:
MP
SM
SP
Example:
All men are creatures of God.
But all Filipinos are men.
2. Second Figure in this second figure,
the middle term (M) is predicate of both
premises.
Illustration:
PM
SM
SP
All men are rational.
No brutes are rational.
No brute are men.
3. Third Figure the middle term is the
subject of both premises.
Illustration:
MP
MS
S-P
Example:
Some students are Filipinos.
All students are Asians.
Some Asians are Filipinos.
4. Fourth Figure the middle term is the
predicate of the major premise and the
subject of the minor premise.
Illustration:
PM
MS
SP
Example:
Some rational beings are men.
Men are animals.
Some animals are rational beings.
 Bythe mood of syllogism, we
mean the proper
arrangement of the premises
according to quality and
quantity (A,E,I,O).
1. Not all the foregoing combinations are
valid because some violate one or the
other of the eight syllogistic rules. Thus,
the following combinations are
eliminated:
a. EE, EO, OO, and OE
Reason: violation of rule 6 which forbids two
negative propositions to be used as
premises.
b. II, IO, and OI
Reason: Violation of rule 7 which forbids
c. IE
Reason: Violation of rule 2
which forbids fallacy of illicit
major.
2. The valid moods in the four
figures are as follows:
First figure : AAA, EAE, AII, EIO
Second figure: EAE, AEE, EIO, AOO
Third figure: AAI, EAO, IAI, AII, OAO,
EIO
Fourth figure : AAI, AEE, IAI, EAO,
EIO
 Hypothetical syllogism is one whose
major premise is a hypothetical
proposition, while its minor premise
and conclusion are categorical
propositions.
It is an argument whose premise is a
sequential proposition, one member
of which is affirmed or denied ion the
second premise, and the other of
which is consequently affirmed or
 Itexpresses only sequence of
statements, not comparison of
terms. Hence, there are no real
major or minor premises, and the
rules, figures and moods of
categorical syllogism do not
apply.
There are three types of
hypothetical syllogisms, namely:
a. Conditional
b. Disjunctive
 A conditional syllogism is one whose major
premise is a conditional proposition, while its
minor premise and conclusion are categorical
propositions.
It is built or based on the truth of the conditional
proposition, which expresses a relation of
dependence between the antecedent and
the consequent.
Example:
If there is conflict, there is life. (major premise)
But there is conflict. (minor premise)
Ergo, there is life. (conclusion)
 There are two valid moods of conditional
syllogism. They are as follows:
1. Modus Ponens
- If the antecedent is accepted in the minor,
the consequent must also be accepted in
the conclusion. The truth of the
antecedent implies the truth of the
consequent.
Example: Valid mood Invalid mood (rejecting
(accepting the the antecedent
antecedent) If a woman has
If people have tumor, she is very ill.
money, they are But Anna has no
happy. tumor.
But the people have Ergo, she is not very
Rejection of antecedent
gives rise to the fallacy of
rejecting the
antecedent.
 2. Modus Tollens
- If the consequent is rejected in the minor
premise, the antecedent must also be in
the conclusion. The falsity of the
consequent implies the falsity of the
antecedent.
Valid mood (Rejecting
the consequent) Invalid mood
If a woman has tumor (Accepting the
in her ovary, she bleeds consequent)
profusely. If a person is
But Mary is not healthy, he is strong.
bleeding profusely. But Mario is strong.
Ergo, she has no tumor
Ergo, he is healthy.
in her ovary.
 Inthis syllogism, the minor premise
accepts or affirms the antecedent
and the conclusion affects or affirms
the consequent.
1. If A is B, then C is D. 2. If A is B, then C is not
But A is B. B.
Ergo, C is D. (valid) But A is B.
Ergo, C is not B. (valid)
4. Unless A is B, then C is not
3. Unless A is B, then C is
D. B.
But A is not B. But A is not B.
Ergo, C is D. (valid) Ergo, C is not D. (valid)
 The mirror premise rejects the
consequent and the conclusion
rejects the antecedent.
Symbolic Illustrations:
1. If A is B, then C is D. 2. If A is B, then C is not D.
But C is not D. But C is D.
Ergo, A is not B. (valid) Ergo, A is not B. (valid)

3. Unless A is B, then C is 4. Unless A is B, then C is not

D. D.
But C is not D. But C is D.
Ergo, A is B. (valid) Ergo, A is B. (valid)
A disjunctive syllogism is one whose
major premise is a disjunctive
proposition, while its minor premise
and conclusion are categorical
propositions.
Example:
It is either hot or not hot. (major
premise)
But is hot (minor premise)
Ergo, it is not hot. (conclusion)
 Review as reference our lesson
on disjunctive proposition
whose subject or predicate
consists of parts (disjuncts)
which exclude each other
(called an either-or
statement).
 There are two moods of the
disjunctive syllogism. They are as
follows:
1. Complete Disjunction disjuncts are
mutually exclusive and contradict
each other.
a. Ponedo Tollens
- If the two disjuncts of the major
premise, one is posited (accepted,
affirmed) in the minor premise, while
the other, sublated (rejected, denied)
Examples:
A student is either lazy or diligent.
But a student is lazy. (posited)
Ergo, a student is not diligent.
(sublated)

The witness is either sane or

insane.
But he is insane.
Ergo, he is not sane.
 b. Tollendo Ponens
- One disjunct is sublated in the minor
premise, while the other is posited in
the conclusion.
Examples:
The girl is either pretty or ugly.
But she is not pretty. (sublated)
Ergo, she is ugly. (posited)
The girl is either pretty or ugly.
But she is not ugly. (sublated)
Ergo, she is pretty. (posited)
 2. Incomplete Disjunction- not mutua;lly
exclusive and disjuncts do not contradict
each other.
a. Ponedo Tollens (the only possible valid
mood)
Posit/ Affirm one disjunct in the minor premise
and sublate or reject the other in the
conclusion.
Examples:
The glass of water is either hot or cold.
But it is hot. (posited)
Ergo, it is not cold. (sublated)
The glass of water is either hot or cold.
 A conjunctive syllogism is one whose major
premise is a conjunctive proposition, while
its minor premise and conclusion are
categorical propositions.
Note:
1. Refer to the notion of conjunctive
proposition which denies that two contrary
predicates can be true of the same
subject at the same time.
2. Conjunctive syllogism is also used in the
 Ponendo Tollens (the only valid mood)
- Affirm or posit one conjunct in the minor
premise and deny or sublate the other in
the conclusion.
Examples:
The accused could not have been in the
USA and Paraaque City at the same
time when the time occurred.
But he was in Paraaque. (posited)
Ergo, he was not in the USA. (sublated)
 Theaccused could not have
been in the USA and Paraaque
City at the same time when the
crime occurred.
Buthe was not in the US.
(sublated)
Ergo,he was in Paraaque.
(posited)
 An imperfect syllogism is a
shortened or lengthened
syllogism. It usually has less or
more than three propositions; or it
has an explanatory clause
attached to one or more
premises. It includes:
a. Enthymemes
b. Epichiremes
 An enthymeme is an abridged syllogism
in which either one premise or two
premises or the conclusion is omitted or
suppressed but implied or understood.
Example:
Sex is natural.
Ergo, it is moral.
Instead of
Whatever is natural is moral.
But sex is natural.
Therefore, it is moral
 There are four types of Enthymemes:
1. Enthymeme of the First Order the
major premise is omitted or implied or
understood.
Example:
Bush is the US President.
Therefore, he has the power.
Instead of
Whoever is the President has the power.
(suppressed major)
But he is the President.
Therefore, he has the power.
2. Second Order the minor premise is
suppressed but implied or understood.
Example:
Whoever is the President has the power.
Therefore, he has the power.
3. Third Order the conclusion is
suppressed but implied.
Example:
Whoever is the President has the power.
He is the President.
4. Fourth Order both minor
premise and conclusion are
suppressed but implied.
Examples:
Whoever is the President has the
power.
Ang taong nagigipit, kahit sa
patalim ay kakapit.
 Anepichireme is a syllogism in
which one or both of the premises
are accompanied with proof or
explanation which is introduced
by because, since, insofar as, for,
inasmuch, as, and so on.
Examples:
Man is mortal because he will die.
Peter is a man.
Ergo, Peter is normal.
What is spiritual is incorruptible
because spiritual beings are
immortal.
But the soul is spiritual because it
has the capacity to grasp
immaterial forms.
Therefore, the soul is incorruptible.
A dilemma is a form of argument
whose major premise is a disjunctive
proposition and whose minor premises
show that whichever part of the
disjunction or alternative the
adversary/ opponent chooses, he is
wrong, or is conclusively against him.
The term comes from the Greek words
dis which means twice, and
lema, assumption or premise.
 Dilemma is a horned argument,
being that the disjuncts are its
horns.
The aim of dilemma is to give the
adversary two choices under
which he can be surely trapped
or pinned down. These two
choices are the horns.
Acceptance or negation of either
horn will pierce him nevertheless.
 The structure of dilemma is either simple
or complex.
The simple dilemma consists of a
disjunctive proposition as major premise,
two conditional propositions as minor
premises and a categorical proposition
as conclusion.
The complex dilemma, on the other
hand, consists of two conditional
propositions a major premises, the
disjunctive as a minor premise and
conclusion which follows from the major
premise.
1. The parts or disjuncts enumerated in the
disjunction must be complete (exhaustion
of all possible alternatives).
2. The consequents of the conditional
propositions should necessarily follow
from the antecedents of the alternatives
or the conditional propositions making up
the minor premise should lead to the
same conclusion.
3. The dilemma should not be open to
rebuttal or retort (alternatives not
admitting other kinds of conclusions).
 The tree I planted will either grow
to high or too low.
If it grows too high, the fruit will be
out of my reach.
If it grows too low, it will not bear
fruit.
Ergo, in either case, it will be a
waste of time and effort to plant
a tree.
 If I take up nursing, I will be able to
go abroad soon.
If I take up caregiver course, I will
not be able to go abroad soon.
Ergo, either I will be able to go
abroad soon or I will not be able
to go abroad.
A dilemma may be refuted or
defeated by the opponent. There
are three (3) ways of doing so,
namely:
1. An adversary must go between
the horns
2. He must grasp the horns of a
dilemma
3. He must rebut the dilemma.
Illustrative Example:
Either Logic is too easy or very
hard.
If it is too easy, then the students
will be able to pass.
If it is very hard, then they will fail.
Ergo, either they will pass or they
fail.
Rebuttal:
Either Logic is too easy or very
hard.
If it is too easy, then students will
easily pass it.
If it is too hard, then the students
will be forced to think and
understand.
Ergo, either students will pass it or
be forced to think and
 Induction refers to a general
principle which states that events
in nature are regular, not random.
This means that the past while not
carbon copy of the future,
nevertheless resembles it.
It is a reasoning process in which
the premises merely offer some
evidence in support of the
 It is the rational process of inferring a
universal principle from individual
instances.
It is an inference wherein the premise or
premises support, but not fully imply the
conclusion, and wherein the conclusion
does not strictly, but not probably
follow from the premises.
More specifically, we pass form the
consideration of particular specific
instances to a general conclusion or
truth or law governing and covering all
 Inthe line of the foregoing
definitions, let us compare and
contrast induction from deduction.
These similarities and differences
are as follows:
Similarities:
Both are mediate inference.
They interlink, complement and
reinforce each other as potent
instruments in the investigation of
truth and the acquisition of human
 Deduction
1. The premises lay complete support for the
conclusion.
2. The conclusion follows with certainty and
necessity
3. The conclusion cannot be bigger in
extension or stronger in mood that the
premises.
4. The form of argument is given primary
consideration
5. The type of knowledge gained is
analytical or a priori-
6. Used mostly and extensively in
mathematics and philosophy,
argumentation and debate
7. Conclusion is either valid or invalid
Example:
All living things die.
Men are living things.
Ergo, men die.
Induction
- Not full backing for the conclusion
- Follows only with probability
- Appears to be always bigger and
stronger
- The contrast or meaning or truth or the
propositions involved in the argument
- Knowledge derived is synthetic and a
posteriori (gained by or through
experience)
- In the experimental sciences, history,
social sciences and detective
investigation
- Only highly probable.
- Example:
Plants die.
Animals die.
Human beings die
Note:
The truth of induction rests on the principle
of probability (which is a state of
knowledge between certainty and
possibility).
Importance of induction is:
It cultivates habit of clear and careful
observation
It cultivates love for facts
It unifies or connects observable and
measurable facts under set of laws
It enables us to predict events.
A postulate is necessary assumption; it is a
presupposition that must be taken for
granted in order to explain some natural
phenomenon. The postulates or
foundations of induction are of two kinds,
namely:
a. Formal principles (fundamental laws of
logic)
b. Material principles (observation,
experiment, hypothesis, verification, and
The formal principles are as follows:
1. The principle of identity A thing is what
it is. It cannot be otherwise. Everything is
identical with itself. Whatever it is, is;
whatever is not, is not.
Examples:
If you are a man, you are a man.
2+2=4
A square is a square.
 2. The principle of Contradiction A thing
cannot be and not be under the same
respects and circumstances at the same
time. It is impossible for one thing and the
same thing to exist at the same time.
Examples:
- A man is man, he cannot be a woman.
- A square is a square, it cannot be a
triangle.
- If you are present, you cannot be absent
at the same time.
- If you are in one place, you cannot be in
 3. The Principle of Excluded middle
A thing either is or is not.
Everything must either be or not be.
Either you exist or you do not exist.
There is no middle ground or third
possibility between two
contradictories.
Examples:
- You are either alive or dead.
- The sup of coffee is either hot or
not hot.
 4. The principle of sufficient reason
everything must a have a sufficient
reason to be what it is in its existence
and being. That which has
produced the existence of anything
is the cause, while that whose
existence is produced or caused by
another is the effect.
Examples:
- I exist, hence, there must be some
sufficient reason behind my
5. The principle of the uniformity of nature
the same causes, acting under similar
circumstances, produce similar results.
Nature is uniform in its causality. Scientific
generalizations or laws can be formulated
because nature is uniform in its behavior.
Things have unchanging essential
properties. For instance, water by its own
nature always puts out fire, or wets the
ground, or fire by its nature burns. The
principle assumes that the nature and
behavior of water is uniform and universal;
that its nature or essence is always the
 Examples:
- We observe that:
- This pin sinks in water.
- This nail sinks in water
- This needle sinks in water
- This ring sinks in water
Now, see the concurrence of these
particular instances, namely:
- They are all metals.
- Therefore, all metals sink in water.
 6. The principle of Causality whatever
happens has a cause for its being and
existence. Every event has a cause, for every
effect there must be a cause. Whatever
happens in nature has an explanation. The
principle sees a universal as a harmonious
interconnectedness of phenomena in which
every phenomenon is interwoven with the
same other phenomena in terms of its
occurrence or coming to be.
Example:
- An engineer can build a bridge.
- The engineer is the cause while bridge is the
effect.
The Material Principles
1. Observation
2. Experiment
3. Hypothesis (tentative or
provisional explanation of a
phenomenon)
4. Verification and application
 Argument by Analogy
- An argument by analogy is one whereby the
mind concludes from the known
characteristics of one thing or group of things
to the unknown characteristics of another
thing or group of things because of a
recognized resemblance existing between
them.
- It assumes that if two things are similar to
each other in certain respects, they are
probably similar to each other in other
respects.
- It is an inference based on comparison and
 Example:
- I have tasted one mango, and
found that it was sweet.
On the basis of what I have
sampled, I will select and buy only
those fruits that have similar
characteristics to the one I have
tasted.
Therefore, by analogy, they are all
sweet.
1. The method of agreement if two or more
instances of the phenomenon under
investigation have only one circumstance
in common, the circumstance in which
alone all the instances agree is the cause
or effect of the given phenomenon
(event, occurrence, happening).
- In this foregoing canon, we determine first
the instance in which the phenomenon
occurs and then find out the
circumstances under each instance.
- That circumstance which is
common to all instances in which
the phenomenon under question
occurs is probably the cause of
the phenomenon.
Illustration:
- Ana, Maria and Mario attended a
birthday party. When they
returned home, they suffered
form diarrhea.
Case Analysis:
a. The diarrhea is the phenomenon.
b. The instances are Ana, Maria and
Mario.
c. The circumstances are the foods
eaten: rice pork, fish, and salad.
d. Ana ate rice, pork, and salad.
e. Maria ate rice, pork and fish.
f. Mario ate rice, pork, fish and salad.
g. Pork is the common circumstance to
all the instances, and
h. Pork, therefore is the probable cause
 2. The method of difference if an instance
in which the phenomenon under
investigation occurs, and in an instance in
which it does not occur, has every
circumstance in common save/except
one, that one occurring only in the former,
the circumstance in which alone the two
instances differ, is the effect, or the cause,
or an indispensable part of the cause, of
the phenomenon.
Illustration:
- Mario and Ana without learning from
bad experience, attended again a party
Case Analysis:
a. Indigestion is the phenomenon.
b. The instances are: Mario and Ana.
c. The circumstances: rice, crabs, squid,
and pork.
d. Mario ate rice, crabs, squid and pork.
e. Ana ate rice, crabs and pork.
f. The only circumstance in which
Mario and Ana differ is the eating of
squid.
g. Squid, therefore, is the probable
cause of Marios developing
3. The joint method of agreement
and difference if two or more
instances, in which the
phenomenon occurs, have only
one circumstance in common,
while two or more instances in
which it does not occur have
nothing in common except the
absence of that circumstance, the
circumstance in which alone all the
instances differ is the effect or the
cause, or an indispensable part of
- Simply, whenever a certain effect
(phenomenon) is present
everytime a particular
circumstance is present, and
absent whenever this same
circumstance is absent, that
circumstance must be the cause,
or at least contributory to the
cause of the given phenomenon
(effect).
 Illustration:
- The hearts of A and B who died of heart
failure, were examined. It was discovered that
in every instance, eggs of flukes (parasites)
are present. Through the method of
agreement, it was found out that eggs of
flukes in the heart must be the probable
cause of heart failure.
- In contrast, an examination was made on the
hearts of instances C and D who died not of
heart failure but of cancer. It was discovered
that in no instance are the eggs of flukes are
present. This second finding corroborates the
first finding that the presence of eggs of flukes
 4. The method of concomitant variations
whatever phenomenon varies in any
manner whenever another phenomenon
varies in some particular manner is either
the cause or an effect of the
phenomenon or is connected with it
through some fact of causation.
Illustration:
- When fish is plenty, only a few buy it, and
its price is low. When fish is scarce, many
buy it, and its price is high.
- From these variations of phenomenon, it
is inferred that variations of the price of
fish is caused by the variation of the
5. The method of residues (process of
elimination) Subduct from any
phenomenon such parts as is known by
previous inductions to be the effect of
certain antecedents, and the residue of
the phenomenon is the effect of the
remaining antecedents.
- Simply, we eliminate or remove from a
given phenomenon all the consequents
that have been known by previous
investigations and whatever is the
remaining consequent of the
phenomenon is the effect of the
 Theconcepts have to be distinguished. In
one hand, argumentation refers to an
act or process of influencing or
convincing others to believe and accept
through persuasions an idea, principle or
a message a speaker wants to convey.
On the other hand, a debate is a
formal, direct, oral contest in
argumentation between two or more
persons on a single definite proposition at
 In both argumentation and debate,
logic is employed.
For in the former, the arguer proves or
defends his points of an issue and
disproves the arguments of his
opponents, while in the latter, the
debater makes use of valid
inferences.
Relative to our study of argumentation
and debate, sufficient knowledge of
fallacies will be a differential
advantage for na arguer or debater.
 The best technique and reasoning skill for
demolishing an argument of an opponent
would be to demonstrate that is fallacious.
What then is fallacy? The term comes from
the Latin word fallere which means to
deceive or to leave astray.
From this root meaning, fallacy may be
construed as erroneous or false reasoning
which has the appearance of truth.
It is false, illogical, misleading or deceptive
argument.
Simply, it is an argument which appears to be
correct under the guise of validity but in
reality, it is not, for it violates the principles and
 The proposition is the subject of
argumentation in a debate. It contains
a judgment that is either affirmed of
denied/negated. The truth or falsity
expressed as affirmed or denied is what
is debatable.
In an argument proposition is the
conclusive which claims the conclusion
supported by the premises. In
composing an arguemnt the steps are
 Firstly, state your conclusion in simple
terms. Define any vague or ambiguous
term. What is the conclusion trying to
establish?
Secondly, examine the claim of the
conclusion. It is empirical? Is it moral or
evaluative? Or, is it a combination of
both?
Thirdly, examine your evidence. What
kind of evidence is required to establish
the truth of the conclusion? What kind of
evidence is required to justify the
correctness of the claim of the
conclusion?
 Affirmative Argumentation:
Conclusion: Resolved: That the
1987 Constitution should be
amended through the Constituent
Assembly
Premise 1: Members of the
Congress are representatives of the
people.
Premise 2: Through the Congress, it
would be economical, and
 Negative Argumentation:
Conclusion: Resolved: That the 1987
Constitution should not be amended
by the Congress but through
Constitutional Convention
Premise 1: Congress is a suspect for
vested interest
Premise 2: Real change is beyond
pecuniary estimation
Premise 3: It should not be a hurried
amendment.
A. Constructive Speech A speech containing
the line of arguments of a side contending in
a debate.
B. Interpellation Question and Answer This
is divided into parts namely: the ability to
defend a contention (answer) and the
ability to destroy (ask).
- Questions must be (as much as possible)
answerable by a yes or no. in cases wherein
questions asked not simple (complicated
questions), the debater being interpellated
shall be entitled to qualify his answer or object
1. Objections Objection Mr. Moderator, the
question is.
a. irrelevant/ misleading/ beyond the scope of
the topics Questions that has nothing to do
with the proposition. The interpellator asks
irrelevant questions to purposely throw the
speaker off track of the topic.
b. Vague and kilometric questions that are
long, grammatically wrong, and could not
be understood.
c. Immaterial/ has no basis/ hearsay the
question is based on doubtful evidence.
d. Hypothetical the question is based on
assumptions.
 e. Calls for opinion (speculation/
personal) the question asks for
personal views with regard to the
topic, or is beyond scope or
expertise of the one being asked.
f. Calls for two extremes the
speaker is made to choose
between two evils or two distinct
situations to mislead him.
g. Argumentative the questions
are based on debatable or
unproven contentions.
 h. Badgering the interpellator shouts
at the speaker, keeps on asking
questions without letting the speaker
answer, or asks personal questions or
violates the integrity and dignity of the
speaker including the evidence and
authorities she presented.
i. Leading the interpellator is
technically asking the speaking to
directly admit or denounce his side.
j. Repulsive to the sense Examples of
repulsive evidence are pictures, scenes
of and actual dead babies (as in
 2. Qualifications when you want to explain
Mr. Moderator, may I qualify my answer, the
question is not simple?
3. Different methods of asking questions
a. Structured questions prepared questions that
are based on a series of deductions to prove
a point of (syllogisms).
b. Single questions a questions that if asked
can already destroy the arguments of the
other side.
Example: cases wherein pieces of evidence are
asked and the other side could not produce it.
c. Straw questions (rapid fire) questions that
only intend to rattle and pressure the other side
 c. Rebuttal Speech Speech delivered by the
Team Captain of both sides containing the
summary of their arguments, verification of the
evidence presented, stipulating the fallacies
of reasoning that their opponents omitted
throughout the debate.
1. Applicable Fallacies of Reasoning
a. Fallacy of accidents when what is
essential is confused with what is only
accidental to an object.
Example:
- That pair of shoes is made in Germany,
therefore, it is quality.
 b. Fallacy of false cause in an
argument the arguer attributes an
effect or result to a false cause which
is inadequate or superstitious or
presumptuous.
Example:
- Politician X is a moneyed
presidentiable. He will surely win. Ergo,
we will just vote for him.
- That victory is ensured for those who
have money. That the voter does not
follow his conscience in voting
responsibly but uses only u8nreal or
 c. Fallacy of consequent when the
arguer takes the truth or falsity of the
antecedent from the truth or falsity of
the consequent.
Example:
- If students are not studious, they will not
finish their schooling. Therefore, they are
not studious.
- There are other factors such as poverty
that may cause the instance of not
finishing schooling.
- Therefore, the conclusion, or the whole
 d. Fallacy of multiple question when several
questions are phrased as one, thus, making it
difficult for a respondent to provide a single
answer. It is usually answerable by yes or
no intended to mislead and entrap him in
the process.
Example:
- Is our political leader a statesman with a
sense of commitment to his word not to
enrich himself while in the office?
- The question may consist of two questions:
- Is our political leader a statesman?
- Is he a person with word of honor not to
enrich himself while in the office?
 e. Fallacy of begging the question
when the arguer assumes as true that
which is yet to be proven. The fallacy
assumes as unproven premise which is
the same as the conclusion. This
fallacy may be either not proven or
vicious circle. The former employs
different words having the same
meaning, while the latter employs two
propositions still unproven which try to
prove one another mutually.
 Example:
Not proven:
- A human being has the
characteristics of animality because
he is sentient.
- The human soul is immortal because
it will live forever.
Vicious circle:
- God is limitless because He is infinite.
- God is everywhere because he is
omnipresent.
 f. Fallacy of absolute when the
arguer assumes a universal
principle as true under all
situations, that is he argues that
the true end of universal or a
general principle includes the
truth of the particular or the
specific case. It is a kin to the
fallacy of the Dicto Simpliciter or a
qualified generalization which
assumes that what is true to one
 Example:
- The late Adela Aguilar had SARS.
- But Adela was a Filipino.
- Therefore, all Filipinos have SARS.
To kill a human person is immoral
and criminal but one may kill in self-
defense. Therefore, one is immoral
and criminal in self-defense.
 g. Argumentum Ad Hominem when the
arguer attacks on the personality of his/her
opponent, thus, he/she evades or escapes
the point at issue. The fallacy takes the
character defects or negative personal life
of the opponent instead of focusing on
the question.
Example:
- Mr. Palma is not the best presidential
candidate, because he is a fat traditional
politician (TRAPO)
The argument is false because fatness and
being TRAPO are taken as reasons to
 h. Argumentum Ad Populum when the
arguer appeals to the public emotion, or
employs an appeal to the passion of the
people for their biased popular sentiment or
favor.
Examples:
- A presidential candidate is from Bicol, so we,
Bicolanos must vote for him.
- A deposed leader still appeals that she is
the legal President, so let us rally for her.
- In both examples, the motives of the arguer
are regionalistic and passionate,
respectively. They are not an appeal to
 i. Argumentum Ad Misericordiam
when the arguer appeals to pity,
sympathy, or misery. He puts aside
reason and pleads for mercy.
Example:
- America is attacked by terrorists, so
you are either with us or against us in
fighting them.
- The statement has pity or sympathy
more as the motivating factor of the
given argument.
 j. Argumentum Ad Verecundiam
when the arguer appeals to respect,
reverence, prestige or authority. He/
she takes the social standings of the
person as the basis of his argument
and consequently, ignores the merit of
the issue.
Example:
- Artificial contraception is moral
because the government is promoting
it.
- the program of the government in the
promotion of contraception is not a
 k. Argumentum Ad Baculum when the
arguer appeals or resorts to might, physical
force, or moral pressure in order to attain his
purpose or end. Through this fallacy, he is
able to deviate form the point at issue.
Example:
- Let our incumbent leader reconsider his
decision not to run in 2010, otherwise there
will be political risks in terms of domestic
instability, political and economic climate.
- Christians should confess their sins to priests, or
else God will not forgive them.
In the two given examples, there is moral
pressure, which may deviate the real issues of
Gods infinite mercy for the latter and
 l. Argumentum Ad Ignorantiam it is a
fallacy where a contention is held to be
true because of the premise that none
has proven it wrong.
Example:
- You could not prove scientifically that
man is created out of dust, so he evolved
form an ape.
- The argument is fallacious because the
arguer ignores the real issue of creation-
spirituality that is the symbiotic relationship
between science and faith
complementing and supplementing
 m. Argumentum Non Sequitur it is
fallacy where an argument does not
follow as the arguer concludes from
the premises.
Example:
- Politicians are corrupt but Senator
Polano is a politician.
- Ergo, Senator Polano is corrupt.
The conclusion does not necessarily
follow from the preceding premises
because we take cognizance of some
who are not corrupt.
A. Practicability (Team captain) Can it be
done? Is it possible? Is it workable? Is it
feasible?
B. Necessity (First Speaker) is it urgently
needed? Inevitable? A requirement? A
demand? Does the fate of the country
depend on it?
C. Beneficiality (second speaker) I it useful?
helpful? Profitable? Advantageous?
Would we gain? Can we save time, effort
A. Affirmative side is vested the burden
of PROOF (presentation of evidence)
B. Negative side is vested the burden of
REFUTAL (presentation of counter
evidence)
C. In no case shall one side assume the
designation of another in a debate.
Once tis is committed the Fallacy of
Shifting the Burden of Proof may be
raised during the rebuttal.