adaptation to carry out specialized functions (eg. Microvilli, root hair) REVIEW: The atom is the smallest and most fundamental unit of matter. The bonding of at least two atoms or more form _________? The simplest level of organization for living things is a single organelle, which is composed of aggregates of macromolecules. The highest level of organization for living things is the biosphere; it encompasses all other levels. The biological levels of organization of living things arranged from the simplest to most complex are: organelle cells tissues organs organ systems Organisms populations communities ecosystem biosphere An emergent property is a characteristic an entity gains when it becomes part of a bigger system. Emergent properties help living organisms better adapt to their environments and increase their chances of survival. Organs do not take on just any form on an organism's body. The fins of a fish, whale, porpoise, tadpole all look similar because they help propel the organism through the water. The feet of frogs, lizards, birds, and humans contain the same basic form to help support and move them on a terrestrial environment. The heart is a muscular pump, varying in the number of chambers, functioning in the movement of blood or fluid through the body. It make no difference what organism it is in, the form of the organ will resemble the others with the same basic function. 1. Epithelial Tissue- is a sheet of cells that covers a body surface or lines a body cavity. Two forms occur in the human body: Covering and lining epithelium forms the outer layer of the skin; lines open cavities of the digestive and respiratory systems; covers the walls of organs of the closed ventral body cavity. Glandular epithelium surrounds glands within the body. Epithelium has two names. The first name indicates the number of cell layers, the second describes the shape of its cell. Based on the number of cell layers, epithelia can either be simple or stratified. Simple epithelia consist of a single cell layer (found where absorption, secretion, and filtration occur). Stratified epithelia are composed of two or more cell layers stacked on top of each other (typically found in high abrasion areas where protection is needed). All epithelial cells have six sides but they vary in height. For this reason, there are three ways to describe the shape and height of epithelial cells. Squamous cells are flat and scale-like. Cuboidal cells are box-like (same height and width). Columnar cells are tall (column shaped). Simple squamous epithelium are close fitting and flattened laterally. Theyre found where filtration occurs (kidneys, lungs) and they resemble the look of a fried egg. Based on location, simple squamous epithelium can be classified: 1. Endothelium provides a friction-reducing ling in lymphatic vessels and all hollow organs of the cardiovascular system (heart, blood vessels, capillaries). 2. Mesothelium is the epithelium found in serous membranes (membranes lining the ventral body cavity and covering the organs within it). Simple cuboidal epithelium consists of a single layer of cells with the same height and width. Functions include secretion and absorption (located in small ducts of glands and kidney tubules). Simple columnar epithelium is a single layer of tall, closely packed cells that line the digestive tract from the stomach to the rectum. Functions include absorption and secretion. They contain dense microvilli on their apical surface . Additionally, some simple columnar epithelia may display cilia on their free surface also. Pseudostratified columnar epithelium vary in height. All of their cells rest on the basement membrane and only the tallest reach the apical surface. When viewing pseudostratified epithelium it may look like there are several layers of cells, but this is not the case. (because the cells have different heights, it gives the illusion of multiple cell layers). Most pseudostratified epithelia contain cilia on their apical surface and line the respiratory tract. Stratified squamous epithelium is the most widespread stratified epithelia. Its composed of several layers and is perfect for its protective role. Its apical surface cells are squamous and cells of the deeper layer are either cuboidal or columnar. Stratified squamous forms the external part of the skin and extends into every body opening thats continuous with the skin. The outer layer of the skin (epidermis) is keratinized (contains keratin, a protective protein). Other stratified squamous in the body is nonkeratinized. Transitional epithelium is a stratified epithelium in which the shape of the surface cells changes (undergoes transitions) depending on the degree of stretch. When a transitional epithelium is not stretched (for example in an empty bladder) the cells of the surface layers are large and rounded. As the name implies, connective tissue serves a "connecting" function. It supports and binds other tissues in the body. Unlike epithelial tissue which has cells that are closely packed together, connective tissue typically has cells scattered throughout an extracellular matrix of fibrous proteins and glycoproteins attached to a basement membrane. Connective Tissues are composed of the following: Adipose tissue is a form of loose connective tissue that stores fat. Adipose lines organs and body cavities to protect organs and insulate the body against heat loss. Adipose tissue also produces endocrine hormones. Cartilage is a form of fibrous connective tissue that is composed of closely packed collagenous fibers in a rubbery gelatinous substance called chondrin. Chondrocytes are the cells that secrete collagen and chondrin. The skeletons of sharks and human embryos are composed of cartilage. Cartilage also provides flexible support for certain structures in adult humans including the nose, trachea, and ears. It functions as cushion between bones. Bone is a type of mineralized connective tissue that contains collagen and calcium phosphate, a mineral crystal. Calcium phosphate gives bone its firmness. It is made by bone forming cells called osteoblasts. Interestingly enough, blood is considered to be a type of connective tissue. Even though it has a different function in comparison to other connective tissues it does have an extracellular matrix. The matrix consists of the plasma, while red blood cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells (Leukocytes), and platelets are suspended in the plasma. Lymph is another type of fluid connective tissue. This clear fluid originates from blood plasma that exits blood vessels at capillary beds. A component of the lymphatic system, lymph contains immune system cells that protect the body against pathogens. Muscle tissue is made of "excitable" cells that are capable of contraction. Of all of the different tissue types (muscle, epithelial, connective, and nervous), muscle tissue is the most abundant in most animals. 1. Cardiac Muscle Cardiac muscle is so named because it is found in the heart. Cardiac muscle is branched, striated muscle. The heart wall consists of three layers: epicardium, myocardium, and endocardium. Myocardium is the middle muscular layer of the heart. Myocardial muscle fibers carry electrical impulses through the heart, which power cardiac conduction. Skeletal muscle, which is attached to bones by tendons, is controlled by the peripheral nervous system and associated with the body's voluntary movements. Skeletal muscle is striated muscle. Unlike cardiac muscle, the cells are not branched. Skeletal muscle cells are covered by connective tissue, which protects and supports muscle fiber bundles. Visceral muscle is found in various parts of the body including blood vessels, the bladder, digestive tract, as well as in many other hollow organs. Like cardiac muscle, most visceral muscle is regulated by the autonomic nervous system and is under involuntary control. Visceral muscle is also called smooth muscle because it doesn't have cross striations. Visceral muscle contracts slower than skeletal muscle, but the contraction can be sustained over a longer period of time. Nervous tissue consists of two main types of cells: neurons and glial cells. Nerve cells, or neurons (also written "neurons") transmit nerve impulses that move information around the body. Neuroglia are also known simply as "glia" and have various functions in support of nerve cells but do not transmit nerve impulses themselves. Each neuron consists of an enlarged part called the cell body (or "perikaryon") which contains of nucleus of the cell and many "processes" called dendrites that extend away from the cell body and are important because they receive the (electrical signals called) nerve impulses. DO NEURONS REGENERATE? Thank you STEM 2
(Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences 15) Ilias Kazanis (Auth.), Catherine Belzung, Peter Wigmore (Eds.) - Neurogenesis and Neural Plasticity-Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg (2013) PDF