POLITICAL

GEOGRAPHY
Chapter 8
The Cultural Landscape by James M. Rubenstein
Introduction
There have been repeated military conflicts and revolutionary changes in once
obscure places

Political geographers study

How people have organized the Earths surface into countries and alliances
Reasons for the particular arrangements
The conflicts that result from the organization

Political Geography is the study of the political organization of the world.

Case Study
The boundary between France and Germany was not always peaceful.

The French say that the Rhine River is the physical boundary between the two
countries, but Germans decided to take over the river and the lands between the river
and the Vosges Mountains
The area had been ruled by Germany until 1670 when France extended its boundaries.

In 1870, the area called Alsace and its neighboring province, Lorraine, were captured by the
German empire. France regained them in WW1, losing it to Germany from 1940-1945 during
WW2. Today, France is the owner.
Case Study continued
Today, boundary disputes and tension still occur

Ex) Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia, and Zagreb, the capital of Croatia, must show
identities and convert currencies when traveling across the border. They were once
part of one country, Yugoslavia, but now they are in separate countries.

Ex) Travelers between Vilnius and Moscow must do the same when traveling across the
international boundaries. They had been part of the Soviet Union but Moscow is in
Russia and Vilnius is in Lithuania.
Introduction
During the Cold War, the world was split into two regions.
United States and allies
Soviet Union and allies

After the Cold War, the political geography changed significantly.

The world is seen as an aggregation of places-landmasses and water bodies, mountains and
rivers, deserts and fertile land, urban areas and forests.
However, boundaries that separate countries are not seen. The worlds most conspicuous cultural
form is the spaces occupied by different countries.
Introduction continued
After the Cold War, the separation globally was brought down and today the United
States is less dominant in the political landscape and the Soviet Union no longer exists.

Globalization has brought countries together and power is used through connections
among different states.

Local diversity has also increased because many demand more control over their own
territory, conflicts have erupted, and countries have been broken up.
Key Issue 1: Where Are States
Located?
State- an area organized into a political unit and ruled by an established government
that has control over its internal and foreign affairs.
Has defined boundaries
And a permanent population
It must be recognized by other states.

A state has sovereignty, independence from control of its internal affairs by other states.

A state is a good example of a formal or uniform region. It is synonymous to country.

Problems of Defining States
Antarctica is the only large landmass that is not part of a state.
It is, however, claimed by Argentine, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, and the
United Kingdom through the Treaty of Antarctica agreed upon in 1959.

Yes to scientific research

No to military activities

Today, there are disagreements about the real number of sovereign states.
ANSWER??
ABOUT 200 COUNTRIES.
Korea: One State or Two?
Korea was divided into two after WW2 after being a Japanese colony. The United
States and the Soviet Union split it along the 38th degree north latitude.
They officially separated when they changed governments and withdrew their armies.
Then, North Korea invaded South Korea causing a 3-year war.
They wanted to bring the country back together to reunite families and increase
economic relationships, but.
It all stopped when North Korea began building nuclear weapons.

OVERALL, KOREA IS ACKNOWLEDGE AS TWO STATES.

China and Taiwan: One State or
Two?
China claimed Taiwan as a part of China, and Taiwan agreed in 1999.
At first, a civil war erupted between the Communists and Nationalists in the late 1940s.
The Nationalists lost and fled to an island where they would wait for the future when
they can defeat the Communists and capture China.

Most consider them two separately.

The United States believed that the Nationalists controlled China until 1971 when they
officially became a Communist country.
Taiwan is now the most populous state not in the United Nations.
Western Sahara (Sahrawi Republic)
It is considered a sovereign state on the west coast between Morocco and Mauritania.
However, Morocco claims West Sahara and has built a wall to keep out rebels.

Spain had controlled it until it withdrew in 1976. I is recognized as independent by most of Africa
until Morocco annexed northward and Mauritania annexed southward. Three years later,
Mauritania withdrew and Morocco claimed all of the territory.

The Polisario Front (an independence movement in West Sahara) signed a cease fire in 1991.
the Sahrawi Republic has yet to decide about its independence.
Western Sahara (Sahrawi Republic)
continued
Two cities in Morocco, Ceuta and Melilla- are claimed by Spain. Spain annexed the
two cities 500 years ago. The residents in the two cities were given limited autonomy in
1994.
Varying Size of States
The largest state is Russia and it takes up 11% of the worlds entire land area.
There are many other large states: China, Canada, the United States, Brazil, and Australia.

The smallest state is Monaco which is only 1.5 square km.

There are many other smaller states such as Andorra, Antigua and Barbuda, Bahrain, Barbados, Dominica,
Grenada, Kiribati, St. Kitts & Nevis, St. Lucia, San Marino, ST. Vincent & the Grenadines, Sao Tome e Principe,
the Seychelles, Singapore, Tonga, and Tuvalu.
These states are called microstates- states with very small land areas
Development of the State Concept
The concept of states or countries is relatively new.

They were organized in city-states, empires, and tribes.

Ancient and Medieval States
The concept of separating countries developed in Europe.

However, they derive from systems in the ancient Middle East in the Fertile Crescent.
Ancient States
The Fertile Crescent was between the Persian Gulf and the Mediterranean Sea.
Between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers was a civilization called Mesopotamia in
present-day Iraq.
The Fertile Crescent was the center of land and sea communications in ancient times.

The first states in Mesopotamia were city-states, a sovereign state that comprises a
town and the surrounding countryside.
Walls were built to define the areas.

Sometimes, one city or tribe would gain military strength and form an empire. Mesopotamia
consisted of empires from the Sumerians, Assyrians, Babylonians, and Persians.
Egypt also formed an empire along the Nile River.
Early European States
Political unity in the ancient world reached its height during the Roman Empire which
controlled Europe, North Africa, and Southwest Asia. It was made up of 38 provinces
and many of the empires frontiers were delineated by strong walls.
The Roman Empire fell in the 5th century and kings, dukes, barons, and other nobles
took over. They organized estates where people worked for the benefit of the leaders.
A group of kings formed modern Western European states like France, England, and
Spain.
Much of central Europe was separated into sovereign states until the 19th century.
Colonies
A colony is a territory that is legally tied to a sovereign state rather than being
completely independent.
A state may run the military and foreign policies and/or the colonys internal affairs.
Colonialism
Colonialism is the effort by one country to establish settlements and to impose its
political, economic, and cultural principles on such territory.
EUROPEAN COUNTRIES GAINED POWER THROUGH COLONIALISM.
They did it for three reasons:
GOD- European missionaries established colonys to promote Christianity.
GOLD- Colonies provided resources and raw materials to economically help the mother country.
GLORY- The number of colonies indicated power.
Colonialism continued
The colonial era began in the 1400s when European states wanted to find a direct
route to Asia but ended in North America.
Soon after, The United States declared independence in 1776 and Latin America from
1800-1824.
Then, Europe began colonizing Asia and Africa. This is called imperialism, control of
territory that is already occupied and organized by an indigenous society.
THE UNITED KINGDOM ASSEMBLED THE LARGEST COLONIAL EMPIRE. France had the
second- largest overseas territory. Together, Europe occupied a colony on every
continent.
The French and British took many islands from the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans.
Portugal, Spain, Germany, Italy, Denmark, the Netherlands, and Belgium established
colonies outside of Europe.
Colonial Practices
Variation in Europe
France tried to influence their colonies with their cultures and educate the elite to provide leadership
among the citizens.
England established different government systems for each of their territories. This helped preserve local
diversity, local customs, and educational systems.

Most African and Asian colonies became independent after WW2. Most of the new states kept the boundaries
of the former colonial provinces.
The Few Remaining Colonies
Today, very few colonies exist. Almost all of them are islands in the Pacific or
Caribbean.
After Hong Kong joined China in 1997, Macao joined the British in 1997, and the
Portuguese in 1999, the most populated colony today is Puerto Rico owned by the
United States.
They are split between the people who want to become a U.S. state or those who want to maintain their
status as a colony of the U.S.
Other populated colonies include French Polynesia, Mayotte, and New Caledonia(France), Netherlands
Antilles(Netherlands), and Guam and the U.S. Virgin Islands(U.S.).
The least populated is Pitcairn Island(United Kingdom).
Key Issue 2: Why Do Boundaries
Cause Problems?
A state is separated by a boundary, an invisible line marking the extent of a states
territory.
Can be physical features(rivers, deserts, and mountains) or cultural features(language
or religion).
Boundary lines are difficult to determine and they can cause conflict inside and
outside of the country.
Shapes of States
The shape of the state determine the interactions with adjacent states. This can affect
communication and conflict with the neighbors.

The shape of the state is part of its unique identity. It can affect the ease or difficulty of
internal administration and social unity.
Five Basic Shapes: Compact States
A compact state has small distances from the center to any boundary. The ideal
country shape would be a circle with the capital in the center and the shortest possible
boundaries.

Compactness is a benefit because it helps with communication, especially when the

capital can be in the center of the state. But, it is just as prone to conflicts as other
states.

Ex) Kenya, Rwanda, Burundi, and Uganda

Five Basic Shapes: Prorupted States
A prorupted state has a large projecting extension to
Provide the state with resources
Separate states that would have shared a boundary.

1. When the Belgians took over the Congo, they created a proruption that was led down the Congo River into
the Atlantic. It also divided the Portuguese colony, Angola, into two fragments.
2. When the British claimed Afghanistan, they created a proruption in between Russia and Pakistan. Gave them
access to the Zambezi River.

Ex) Thailand, Myanmar, Namibia, Mozambique, Cameroon, Dem. Rep. of Congo

Five Basic Shapes: Elongated States
Elongated States are states with long and narrow shape.
Ex) Chile, Italy, Gambia, Norway, Vietnam

Elongated states have poor internal communication because the people living in the extreme north or
south may be far away from the capital in the middle of the state. It would be impossible to find a place
where everyone is equal distance to the capital.
Five Basic Shapes: Fragmented
States
Fragmented states are made up of several pieces of discontinuous territories.
There are two types of fragmented states:
Areas separated by water
Areas separated by land

An example would be Indonesia. Fragmentation doesnt allow for good communication and the people cannot be
physically unified.
To force unification, Indonesia is encouraging migration from one island to another.
Indonesias islands were not joined voluntarily. When Timor-Leste (East Timor) became independent in 1975, Indonesia
invaded. Many people living on the island wanted to remain independent, so the Indonesian soldiers terrorized the
population. UN officials took over East Timors administration until it became an independent state in 2002.
In the same way, West Papua wanted to be independent but no other country strongly encouraged that and Indonesia
took over the island easily.

Ex) Indonesia, USA, Russia, Philippines, Azerbaijan, Angola

Five Basic Shapes: Fragmented
States
Fragmentation between states is extremely difficult.
A good example would be Alaska. Communication is difficult with the United States when it is blocked by
Canada.
Russia is also separated by other independent states. Kaliningrad is a part of Russia next to the Baltic Sea. It
is separated by Lithuania and Belarus. The Soviet Union took over after WW2, because it has the countrys
largest naval base.
The largest fragmentation example would be with Tin Bigha. It fragments Dahagram and Angarpota from
Bangladesh. India agreed to let Bangladesh have Dahagram and Angarpota, but this created another
fragmentation with Cooch Behar. Their agreement states that they can move between the two countries
without identification, but unrest between their two religions doesnt allow comfort in that action.
Panama was divided into two by a canal built by the U.S. There was much tension between the areas until
they signed a treaty in 1999 saying that the canal is neutral and the U.S. could force it to keep working. U.S
withdrew and Panama became an independent state.
Five Basic Shapes: Perforated States
Perforated States are states that completely surrounds the other.
An example would be South Africa that completely surround Lesotho. They depend on South Africa for
their imports and exports.

Ex) Lesotho/South Africa, San Marino & Vatican City/Italy

Landlocked States
A landlocked state lacks a direct outlet to the sea because it is completely surrounded
by several other countries.
Lesotho is landlocked by South Africa. South Africa has the most amount of landlocked states when the
Europeans controlled colonies. Europe built railroads in the 20th century to connect all of Africa. They used
to carry minerals to the ports and equipment and supplies from the ports. Today they serve as separations
in independent countries and those states must cooperate with the state along the ports.

Direct access to the sea is important because it can be easily used for international trade. Landlocked
states must use another country to export and to receive import.
Landlocked States in Southern Africa
Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland, Congo Democratic Republic, Zambia, and Zimbabwe
must transport their exports through South Africa. However, they disliked South Africas
discrimination towards blacks.
Zimbabwe was once a British colony called Sothern Rhodesia. When they declared
themselves the independent country of Rhodesia in 1965 by the white minority, many
countries ceased trade with it. Rhodesias main railroad to South Africa went through
Botswana which was ruled by blacks. Botswana was not cooperative so they had to
build a railroad directly to South Africa.
The blacks were allowed to vote in Rhodesia in 1979. They are acknowledged as an
independent state by the British and was renamed Zimbabwe. They wanted to
decrease their dependency on South Africa because they disagreed with apartheid.
The closest seaport in in Beira, Mozambique. However, a civil war erupted from 1976 to 1992 between the
government and rebels. Zimbabwe sent soldiers to protect the port, but is was not well maintained.
Landlocked States in Southern Africa
Mozambiques two other seaports, Nacala and Maputo, were also damaged by the
civil war. The Benguela railway from the Atlantic through Zaire and Zambia was
damaged during a civil war in Angola.
The Tazara line is open but it has unreliable service in a breakable machines and
landslides.

As a result, Zimbabwe must pass South Africa to trade.

Types of Boundaries
Before borders separated states, a frontier did. A frontier is a zone where no state
exercises complete political control. It differs from a border because it is a tangible
geographic feature.
Frontiers are areas of separation whereas borders give countries direct contact. The
direct contact has potential for close conflict.
Almost all of the frontiers have been replaced with borders. Modern technology
provides direct surveillance and frontiers may now be used for farming.
The only regions with frontiers instead of boundaries are Saudi Arabia and Antarctica.
The frontiers separate Saudi Arabia from Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, Oman, and
Yemen. Recently, the frontier between Saudi Arabia and Iraq was unofficially made
into a border.
Types of Borders
There are two types of borders:
Physical (mountains, deserts, water)
and Cultural(language and/or religion)
Many boundaries are a combination of both types.
Physical Boundaries
Physical features can be good borders because they can be easily seen on Earths
surface.

3 types:
Mountains
Deserts
Water
Mountain Boundaries
Mountains can be effective because there are limited communications between both
of the countries, it is permanent, and sparsely inhabited.
Argentina and Chile are separated by the Andes Mountains, and a war almost erupted
over the location of the boundary line. They finally decided that it was the line
connecting the adjacent mountain peaks.
Desert Boundaries
Deserts are also very useful boundaries because they are difficult to cross and can limit
communications with the other country. They are common in Africa and Asia.

Ex) The Sahara Desert separates Algeria, Libya, and Egypt in the north from Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Chad,
Sudan, and South Sudan.
Water Boundaries
Rivers, lakes, and oceans are unchanging and they can be seen on Earths surface.
Usually in East Africa.
Ex) boundary between Congo Democratic Republic and Uganda through Lake Albert
Ex) boundary between Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda through Lake Victoria.
Ex) boundary between Burundi, Congo Democratic Republic, Tanzania, and Zambia through Lake
Tanganyika
boundary between Congo Democratic Republic through Lake Mwera
Boundaries are typically in the middle of the water.
Except for boundary between Malawi and Mozambique though Lake Malawi(Lake Nyasa)
Follows the north shore. Results from colonialism.
Water Boundaries
Water boundaries guard the mainland because another state would need to land
before attacking. Then, the country waiting can protect the landing location before
they even get there.

The problem with water boundaries are that they can shift over time, especially rivers.
The Rio Grande between Mexico and the United States has frequently changed positions.
Oceans can also be tricky borders because countries usually claim it in the middle of the sea for
defense and fishing industries.
The Law of the Sea was signed by 117 countries in 1983 to allow for territorial rights 12 nautical
miles from the mainland and marine life rights 200 miles from the mainland.
Cultural Boundaries
Most boundaries are drawn for differences in ethnicity like language and religion. Other
cultural boundaries are just drawn as straight lines.
A nation-state does not really have conflicts within the state because they match the
boundaries of the ethnic group. A nation-state is a state whose territory corresponds to
that occupied by a particular ethnicity that has been transformed into a nationality.
European nation-states:
Denmark
90% of population are ethnic Danes
Nearly all Danes speak Danish
Nearly all worlds Danish speakers live in Denmark
Slovenia
83% of population are ethnic Slovenes
Nearly all of the worlds Slovenes live in Slovenia
Geometric Boundaries
Geometric Boundaries drawn using grid systems, especially latitude and longitude or
township and range.
Part of the border between the U.S. and Canada is drawn along the 49th degree north latitude. They also
share another boundary between Canada and the Yukon Territory along the 141west longitude.
A geometric boundary was drawn between Chad and Libya by the French and the British during
colonization. Italy seized Libya from the Turks in 1912 and demanded an extension of the boundary of
French-controlled Chad southward. They suggested 60 miles, but Italy was not satisfied and never
accepted the offer. This area is now known as the Aozou Strip.

The boundary was moved set in its original location when Libya and Chad became independent. Chad sneakily
claimed the Aozou Strip in 1973, but Chad and the French forces forced Libya out of the territory and claimed it.
Religious Boundaries
Many boundaries coincide with the boundaries between states, but it is rarely used
from the beginning to draw a boundary.
Ex) In South Asia, the British used their religion to separate India. The Muslims were placed in Pakistan and
the Hindus were placed in India.
Language Boundaries
Language is a pivotal characteristic of different nationalities, and it is important in the
drawing of boundaries.
The development of France came about from the French language. England, Spain, and Portugal also
all came about from distinctive languages.
After World War 1, countries came to the Versailles Peace Conference where the major component to
redrawing the European country boundary lines was language. They focused on Eastern and Southern Europe
because there had been much political instability. Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, and Romania all received new
boundary lines in relation to the clusters of predominant languages. Speakers of the similar South Slavic languages
were put into Yugoslavia.
It remained relatively peaceful until Czechoslovakia decided to separate.
Cypruss Green Line Boundary
Cyprus has two nationalities: Greek and Turkish. They arent integrated very well.
Several Greek Cypriot soldiers on the island wanted to unify Cyprus with Greece and
seized control of the government. After that, Turkey invaded Cyprus to protect the
Turkish population living there.
The soldiers who took over were overthrown and an elected government returned.
However, the state divided strictly with the Turks in the northeastern part of the island
and the Greeks in the southern part. A lot of the Greeks were forced to move by the
Turkish soldiers.
UN soldiers protect the boundary between the Turks and the Greeks. To attempt to
unify Cyprus, the European Union decided to accept Cyprus as a member. They finally
allowed integration of the two nationalities.
Boundaries Inside States
They are used to separate different nationalities and ethnicities or to provide
advantage to a political party.
Unitary and Federal States
Because so many ethnicities are demanding power within the state, some
governments have changed their political system. They are either organized as a
Unitary State- an internal organization of a state that places most power in the hands of central
government officials.
Federal State- an internal organization of a state that allocates most powers to units of local government.
Unitary states work best in nation-states where there are few internal cultural differences and a strong sense of
national unity. Smaller states are also more likely to use it because effective and fast communication is needed.
Multinational states can adopt a federal system to allocate power to the different nationalities, especially is the
state is large. One central capital would be far from any part of the state, so breaking down the system to specific
local governments can bring easier control
Trend Toward Federal Government
There has been sudden increases in the amount of federal states there are.
France: Curbing a Unitary
Government
France has had a long tradition of a unitary system of government.

Recently, the French government has granted additional legal powers to departments
and smaller levels of government.
Poland: A New Federal Government
Poland converted to a federal system after they wrestled the national government
from the Communists. The Communists had a very controlling role and the federal
system was adopted to convert to a more fair system.
Because when the Communists ruled, the local governments had very little power, the detailed and
essential parts of a state were not provided for, like infrastructure.

The new government wanted a peaceful revolution where municipalities had elected officials who took care of
the citizens. They were given the choice to individually run businesses or schools.
Their transition was particularly difficult. They had to find many local qualified people to fill in more positions.
Electoral Geography
Redistricting is the redrawing of the boundaries separating legislative districts to ensure
that each district has approximately the same population. This must be done because
of the changes in population from migration. There are a total of 435 districts that are
drawn and each U.S. Representative will come out from one district.
In European countries, commissions create compact homogeneous districts without regard for the voting
preferences. In the U.S., the political party in control of the state legislature will redraw the boundaries.
Gerrymandering is the process of redrawing legislative boundaries for the purpose of benefitting the party
in power.
Types of Gerrymandering
Three forms of Gerrymandering: Wasted vote, Excess vote, and Stacked vote.
Wasted: spreads opposition supporters across many districts but in the minority.
Excess: concentrates opposition supporters into a few districts
Stacked: links distant areas of like-minded voters through oddly shaped boundaries.
Stacked Vote Gerrymandering
Stacked vote Gerrymandering is the most widely used form of gerrymandering used
today. It creates districts that give a lot of the power to the ethnic minorities. The two
largest ethnic groups in the U.S., African American and Hispanic, tend to vote
Democratic.
The U.S. Supreme Court ruled gerrymandering an illegal act, but it is still used today
because it did not outlaw oddly shaped districts.
Key Issue 3: Why Do States
Cooperate with Each Other?
Diverse ethnic groups within a state can lead to the break up of states into smaller
ones. Globalization can also threatens todays collection of sovereign states.

However, some ethnic diversity groups have accepted a regional control of the state
for economic cooperation.
Political and Military Cooperation
During the Cold War, many states joined the United Nations, regional, and international
organizations to prevent a third world and protect countries from foreign attack.
The United Nations
The United Nations were created at the end of World War 2 by the Allies. It started out
with 16 countries who were mostly liberated from German control. Then 17 members
were added, mostly African colonies who were controlled by Britain or France. Then, 26
countries were added after the breakup of the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia. Then,
several microstates were added.

The United Nations were established after a first attempt called the League of Nations,
which was established after World War 1. The United States never joined and Germany,
Japan, Italy, and the Soviet Union all withdrew.
The United Nations
An advantage to being a member of the United Nations is that members can vote to
establish a peacekeeping force and to contribute military forces to help another
member.
The five permanent members of the Security Council are CHINA, FRANCE, RUSSIA, THE
UNITED KINGDOM, AND THE UNITED STATES.
Any one of these members can veto a vote to establish peacekeeping forces in
another state.
The United Nations is playing an important role today in separating conflicting groups in
Eastern Europe, the Middle East, and sub-Saharan Africa.
Regional Military Alliances
After World War 2, many countries joined various military alliances and from that
emerged the tow superpowers- the Soviet Union and the United States.
Era of Two Superpowers
There used to be many more superpowers, but they were all weakened from the post
effects of the two world wars. All of the former major powers joined together into
alliances that either supported the U.S. or the Soviet Union.
The balance of power is a condition of roughly equal strength between opposing
alliances. Usually, one side would have more of an advantage that the other side, but
the powers were bipolar during the Cold War. Partners could provide support and
loyalty while some allies could just be unreliable members with little usefulness.
Both the Soviet Union and the United States threatened to forcefully prevent any ally
from getting too independent to form another force.
Both of the superpowers had the advantage to send armed forces immediately all
over the world if there was any need to. They even set up military bases in different
allied countries to connect the entire team.
Military Cooperation in Europe
After World War 2, states joined either NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) or the
Warsaw Pact.
NATO included the democratic allies of Canada, the United States, and 14 European
states. 12 states were reliable allies: Belgium, Denmark, West Germany, Greece,
Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Turkey, and the United
Kingdom. France and Spain were not fully reliable.
The Warsaw Pact was a military agreement among the Communist Eastern European
countries to defend each other for potential attacks. Seven members joined: the Soviet
Union, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, and Romania.
These two organizations were made to keep the balance of power.
Military Cooperation in Europe
NATO Goal: to prevent the Soviet Union from overrunning West Germany and other
smaller countries
Warsaw Pact Goal: to provide a buffer of allied states between it and Germany to
discourage a third German invasion of the Soviet Union in the 20th century.

Now that the superpowers are no longer fighting for their beliefs, the Warsaw Pact
disbanded and NATO expanded to include most of the countries of the Warsaw Pact
to protect them from any potential Russian threats.
The Organization on Security and Cooperation in Europe has 55 members and it
includes the U.S., Canada, Russia, and most European states. Their goal is to end
conflicts within Europe, especially with the Balkans and Caucasus.
Other Regional Organizations
The Organization of American States (OAS) includes all 35 states in the Western
Hemisphere. They promote social, cultural, political, and economic links among
member states.
African Union (AU) encompasses the 53 states of Africa and it replaced the former
organization of the Organization of African Unity. It was founded to end colonialism
and apartheid in Africa. Now it promotes economic development and integration in
Africa.
The Commonwealth includes the United Kingdom and 53 other states that were once
British colonies. They seek economic and cultural cooperation.
Economic Cooperation
The era of the two superpowers ended when the Soviet Union broke apart. Now, the
world has a greater number of superpowers like before World War 2.
However, there are two differences:
1. State power now derives more from economic power, rather than military power.
Japan and Germany have joined the superpowers while Russia has dropped out
because of its economic problems.
2. The leading super power is no longer one single state, but an economic union of
European states led by Germany.
European Union
Western Europes most important economic organization is the European Union.
When it was established in 1958, there were 6 original members- Belgium, France, Italy,
Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and the Federal Republic of Germany West Germany).
The union was made to heal Western Europe from the after effects of World War 2.
Changes in Germany and Eastern
Europe
Germany became a nation-state in 1871, but before that, it was a cluster of small
states. One of those states, Prussia, was the most powerful. Prussias prime minister, Otto
von Bismarck, tried to force tried to force the rest of the states to join the German
Empire. Austria, Switzerland, and Bohemia refused and the German Empire lasted less
than 50 years.

After World War 1, Germany lost much of its land and it became a fragmented state
when the Danzig Corridor separated East Prussia. Although the boundaries were made
to follow ethnic group, Germany's borders were still arbitrary. Germany took over
Austria, Poland, and portions of Czechoslovakia to make a true German nation-state.
Changes in Germany and Eastern
Europe
After Germany lost in World War 2, the Allies redrew the boudnaries of the country and
its capital city, Berlin, into 4 section where the 4 victors of the war would take over, the
United States, France, the United Kingdom, and the former Soviet Union. When the
political differences between the Soviet Union and the three other states cause the
splitting of Germany into East Germany (the German Democratic Republic) and West
Germany (the Federal Republic of Germany).
When communism fell, East Germany became part of the Federal Republic of
Germany.
 Changes in Germany and Eastern
Europe
From the 7 Easter European Communist states formed an organization call the Council
for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) during the Cold War. It was meant to
promote trade and the sharing of natural resources.

West Germany East Germany

U.S. Ally Member of

Member of
the Member of
COMECON Soviet
European the Warsaw
Union Ally Pact
Member of NATO
Changes in Germany and Eastern
Europe
COMEOCON later disbanded after the fall of communism.
Later, other countries joined the European Union: Denmark, Ireland, the United
Kingdom, Greece, Portugal, Spain, Austria, Finland, Sweden, Czech Republic, Estonia,
Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Slovak Republic, and Slovenia.
The main goal of the European Union is to promote development within the member
states through economic cooperation. The European Parliament, elected by the states
has removed the barriers to free trade and have made trading easier and faster with
other countries in the organization.
The Euro is a common currency in 12 of states, which allows for differences in prices,
interest rates, and other economic policies.
KEY ISSUE 4: Why Has Terrorism
Increased?
Terrorism: the systematic use of violence by a group in order to intimidate a population
or coerce a government into granting its demands. They achieve their objectives
through bombings, kidnappings, hijackings, taking of hostages, and assassination that
spread fear and anxiety.
They always use violence to force the matter into the governments hands and they are even willing to
die in the process.
The word terrorism was first used in the French Revolution when the Committee of Public Safety
beheaded several thousand of its political opponents.

Terrorism refers to organizations outside of the government, and some governments even provide military and
financial support for the terrorists.
Terrorism by Individuals and
Organizations
4 U.S. Presidents have been assassinated: Lincoln (1865), Garfield (1881), McKinley
(1901), and Kennedy (1963).
The Roman Emperor, Julius Caesar, was assassinated 2,000 years ago.
The assassination of the Archduke Franz Sarajevo, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary,
by a Serbian led to the beginnings of World War 1.

Terrorism differs from assassinations and political violence because it is usually aimed
toward ordinary people. Victims are not predetermined, but are the people there
present when they initiate the attack. A terrorist considers the entire population
responsible for the actions being opposed.
American Terrorists
December 21, 1988- A terrorist bomb destroyed Pan Am flight over Scotland killing 259
in the flight and 11 on the ground.
February 26, 1993- a car bomb in the underground garage damaged the World Trade
Center killing 6 and injuring about 1,000.
June 25, 1996- a truck bomb blew up in an apartment complex in Saudi Arabia and it
killed 19 U.S. soldiers.
August 7, 1998- U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania were bombed, killing 190 and
injuring 5, 000.
October 12, 2000- The USS Cole was bombed while in Yemen.
American Terrorists
September 11, 2001- attack on the World Trade Center, the Pentagon, and the twin
towers in New York.
On the United Airline flight 93, passengers fought the terrorists on board preventing an attack on
another Washington D.C target.
Al- Qaeda
Al-Qaeda was responsible for most of the terrorist attacks in the 1990s and the attack
on 9/11. It was founded by Osama bin Laden. His father owned a successful
construction company and Osama bin Laden used his fathers money to fund Al-
Qaeda.
He moved to Afghanistan to help fight against the Soviet Union. After the Soviets
withdrew, he returned to Saudi Arabia but was expelled for opposing the decision to
allow the U.S. to station troops there during the 1991 war against Iraq.
He then moved to Sudan but was expelled for causing attacks on the U.S. troops in
Yemen and Somalia.
He then moved back to Afghanistan.
Al-Qaeda
Bin Laden waged war on the U.S. in 1996 because he thought they were responsible for
keeping the Saud royal family as rulers of Saudi Arabia and a state of Israel dominated
by Jews.
If they were to get rid of the Saud royal family and the Jews, they could gain control of their three holiest
sites: Makkah(Mecca), Madinah, and Jerusalem.

The entire organization is separated into cells where different cells have different responsibilities.
Reconnaissance specialists--- consultation council ( Majiis al shura)--- finance, media, and legal-religious
policy committees---- the Majiis-- Osama bin Laden.

Al-Qaeda is a relatively separated organization that has an impact in such an extensive area of land that many
do not have direct access to each other. Sleepers are people who wait for their cell leaders order to perform a
job.
Al- Qaeda
Al- Qaeda has been responsible for many bombings since 9/11.
In Saudi Arabia, Instanbul, Turkey, London, England, Sharm-el-Sheikh, Egypt, and
Amman, Jordan.
Al- Qaeda also encompasses other local franchises, imitators, and emulators
concerned with country-specific issues.
An example would be Jemaah Islamiyah. They have concentrated their attacks on Indonesia.

It has been a struggle for both Muslims and non-Muslims.

Muslims struggle with expressing disagreement with other governments without the use of terrorism.
Non- Muslims struggle to distinguish peaceful, but unfamiliar principles and practice of the Muslims.
State Support for Terrorism
Several states in the Middle East have encourage terrorism by providing sanctuary for
terrorists wanted by other countries, supplying weapons, money, and intelligence to
the terrorists, and planning attacks using terrorists.

The U.S. accused Afghanistan, Iraq, and Iran consecutively responsible for the 9/11
attacks. The government attacked Afghanistan in 2001 and Iraq in 2003.
Afghanistan
The United States attacked Afghanistan in 2001 when its leaders, known as the Taliban,
sheltered Osama bin Laden and other al- Qaeda terrorists.
The Taliban gained power in 1995 when it suppressed the civil war and imposed strict
Islamic fundamentalist law on the population.
The Afghanistan civil war began when the King was overthrown by a military coup in
1973 and was replaced 5 years later by a bloody coup from a pro- Soviet Union
government. The Soviet Union sent its soldiers to Afghanistan to suppress the rebellion
against them. However, the battle occurred in the rugged mountains and the Soviet
Union returned home. This led to the Talibans power.
Afghanistan
The U.S. destroyed the Taliban to get to the al- Qaeda leaders, including Osama bin
Laden. The Taliban regrouped and continued rebellion against the U.S.-backed
Afghanistan government.
Iraq
The U.S. attacked Iraq in 2003 to get rid of President Saddam Hussein. He had created
biological and chemical weapons of mass destruction that were rumored to have
close links with al- Qaeda.
War with neighbor, Iran
Use of poison gas against Iraqi Kurds in 1988.
Iraqs 1990 invasion of Kuwait. 1991 Gulf War known as Operation Desert Storm drove
Iraq out of Kuwait. Many countries supported this attack against Iraq.
However, many countries opposed the U.S.s attack on Iraq in 2003 because they
believed that Iraq no longer possessed weapons of mass destruction.
After getting rid of Hussein, the U.S. expected joy from the Iraqi people, but they were
faced with struggle among religious sects and tribes.
Iraq
The Kurds welcomed the U.S. because they had gotten more security and autonomy.
The Sunni Muslims disliked the Unites Statess actions because they feared the loss of
power because Hussein was also Sunni.
Iran
The United States accused Iran of taking in al- Qaeda members and trying to gain
influence in Iraq where there were Shiites. There was also evidence that Iran was
developing nuclear weapons.