Tribology : History and

Advancements
 Tribology
Derived from the Greek word tribos meaning rubbing or sliding

Tribology is the science and engineering of interacting surfaces in

relative motion.

[Source:tribocoating.de/images]
 Historical Background
In a traditional form has been in existence since the beginning of recorded
history. Many well documented examples available of how early civilizations
developed bearings and low friction surfaces

Egyptians, Sumerians (3500-35 A.C.)

- leather as bearing material for rolls and wheels
- stone transport on wooden rails with lubrication by oil, grease, water
- roller bearings since about 330 A.C. in Greece

Sliding bearing

The first recorded Tribologist 2400

B. C.

[Source: D .Dowson, history of tribology,1979, publisher.longman, University of Leeds]

 History contd..
Potter wheels using fired porcelain cups as bearing appeared in china
about 1500 BC and by 400 BC. Chinese bearing technology had developed
sophisticated plain lubricated bronze bearing for use on war chariots.
In the Forbidden City, there is a huge sculpture of nine dragons cut out of
a single marble stone weighing about 250 tons. To move the huge stone
from its original location, 70km to Beijing, it is said that water was
pumped onto the road during the winter to make the road icy so that the
dragging force could be greatly reduced.

Leonardo Da Vinci (1452-1519) was one of the first scholars to study

friction systematically. He realized how important friction is for the
workings of machines. He focused on all kinds of friction and drew a
distinction between sliding and rolling friction.
He stated two basic laws of friction 200 years before Newton even defined
what force is.
1. the areas in contact have no effect on friction.
2. if the load of an object is doubled, its friction will also be doubled.
 Guillaume Amontons (1663-1705) rediscovered the two basic laws of
friction that had been discovered by Leonardo Da Vinci, and he also came
up with an original set of theories. He believed that friction was
predominately a result of the work done to lift one surface over the
roughness of the other, or from the deforming or the wearing of the other
surface.

The force of friction is directly proportional to the applied load.

The force of friction is independent of the apparent area of contact.
Charles August Coulomb (1736-1806) added to the second law of friction;
"strength due to friction is proportional to compressive force", "although
for large bodies friction does not follow exactly this law". Coulomb
published the work referring to Amontons. The second law of friction is
known as the "Amontons-Coulomb Law" referring to work done by the
two scientists in 1699 and 1785 respectively.
Kinetic friction is independent of the sliding velocity

Bowden and Tabor (1950) gave a physical explanation for the

laws of friction.
 Modern Tribology
In the early 1960s, there was a dramatic increase in the reported failures
of plant and machinery due to wear and associated causes, causing heavy
financial losses. Continuous processes made machinery breakdowns more
costly and serious than ever.

[Source:rubochem.com/product images]

The early focus of tribology was on improving operation and extending the
lifecycle of industrial machinery. Today, those principles and design
benefits are making a major impact in a variety of modern applications,
such as
Practical Objectives of Tribology [ Engineering Tribology by Stachiowak and
Batchelor, Butterworth Heineman]
 Areas of Tribology
Biomedical (Biotribology)- The application of tribology
in biological systems is a rapidly growing field and
extends well beyond the conventional boundaries.
Biomedical tribological systems involve an extensive
range of synthetic materials and natural tissues,
including cartilage, blood vessels, heart, tendons,
ligaments, and skin.
Biotribologists incorporate concepts of friction, wear,
and lubrication of these biological surfaces in various
applications, such as the design of joints and prosthetic
devices, the wear of screws and plates in bone fracture
repair, wear of denture and restorative materials, wear
of replacement heart valves, and even the tribology of
contact lenses
 Biotribology
Friction, lubrication
and wear of orthopaedic implants,

Wear of dentures,

Wear of artificial heart valves,

Friction of skin

Ocular tribology
Co-Cr Alloys, Titanium alloys, SS
 Metal-on-plastic The metal and plastic implants are the most
commonly used hip replacement implants. Both the ball and the
socket of the hip joint are replaced with a metal prosthesis, and a
plastic spacer is placed in between.

Metal-on-Metal Implant
Metal-on-metal implants use similar materials, but there is no
plastic piece inserted between. Metal-on-metal implants do not
wear out as quickly as the metal and plastic materials. The metal
and plastic implants wear at a rate of about 0.1 millimeters each
year. Metal-on-metal implants wear at a rate of about 0.01
millimeters each year, about 10 times less than metal and plastic.

Ceramic-on-Ceramic
These are designed to be the most resistant to wear of all
available hip replacement implants. They wear even less than the
metal-on-metal implants. Ceramics are more scratch resistant and
smoother than any of these other implant materials.
 Nanotribology
Deals with Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS)/Nanoelectromechanical
systems (NEMS), such as disk drives and other magnetic storage systems

Hard Disk Drive: Tribology comes into play as a result of the interaction between
the recording head and the disk.
 Green Tribology
Concept of Green tribology also introduced
by Jost, who defined it as,
The science and technology of the tribological
aspects of ecological balance and of
environmental and biological impacts.
Encompasses biomimetic tribology (which
follows the ways of living nature to solve
engineering problems, eco-friendly
lubrication, and clean and sustainable energy
applications.
 Importance of Tribology
Economical losses by wear
~ 1-4% of gross national product
~ 10% of primary energy is lost by friction and wear
In Germany (direct and indirect costs)
1975 2.5 Billion
1983 5 Billion (of this 1,1 billion in steel industry)
2002 40 Billion

Direct costs :- new parts, regeneration of worn parts.

Indirect costs: interruption of production; costs of maintanance;
storekeeping
In U.S.A. it has been estimated that about 11% of total annual
energy can be saved in the four major areas of transportation,
turbo machinery, power generation and industrial processes
through progress in tribology .

For example, tribological improvements in cars alone can save

about 18.6% of total annual energy consumed by cars in the
U.S.A., which is equivalent to about 14.3 billion US$ per annum.
 Industrial applications
Metal forming
M/c tool transmission system
Engine pistons and rings
Vehicle Sliding surfaces (shaft,
bearings, gears,etc)
Gas turbine engines
Rail roads
Magnetic storage device.
Various types of coatings over
solid metallic and non-metallic
bodies
and in many others components
and devices.
And by the latest it has found application
over
.Microtribology of Solid Lubricant
Coatings for MEMS(
Microelectromechanical systems)
.Nanoscratching which Determines the
Functional Width of Interfaces
.Nanoindentation of Tribological Coating
on Steel
.Full Nanomechanical Characterization of
Ultra-Thin Films
.Nanoindentation of DLC(Diamond like
carbon) Coatings
.Depth Profiling (Techniques for Depth
Profling of Materials)
Applications
 Friction
Resisting force resisting the relative motion of solid surfaces,
fluid layers, and material elements sliding against each other.

Tangential friction force is proportional to the normal force in

sliding;
Friction force is independent of the apparent contact area;
Friction force is independent of the sliding speed.
 Types of Friction

Dry friction (S-S)

Fluid friction (L-L)
Lubricated friction(L-S- (a) A Solid to solid contact

L)
Skin friction(S-G,L)
Internal friction

(b) Physical configuration of

Partial journal Bearing(LSL)
[Source:emeraldinsight.com]
 Theories of friction
Adhesion theory of friction: one surface rests over another
surface on a number of small adhesive junctions of type as
shown, which are formed by compression of asperities until the
cross-section of all such junctions become enough to support the
load under static condition.

(coefficient of friction)= ratio of shear stress of joint to the

hardness of softer of the two mating materials
Asperity interlocking theory:
All surfaces are made of asperities (mountains and valleys) and
mountains of one surface may go and interact with the valleys
of another surface. In course of sliding, the plastic de-formation
of softer asperities have to occur by the applied force. This
causes frictional resistance.
 Friction Theory cont
2.3.3 Molecular Attraction
Theory:The basis of this theory is
the partial irreversibility of the
bonding force between atoms.
Such molecular attraction
operates over short distances
and, therefore, differentiates
between real area of contact and
apparent area of contact.
2.3.4 Stick Slip Theory:. When one
surface starts sliding over
another, a rise in temperature
occur at these junctions and
causes local welding at the points
of contact (junctions). This causes
resistance to motion i.e. friction.
 Wear
Wear is the surface damage or removal of
materials from one or both of the two solid
surfaces in sliding, rolling or impact motion
relative to one another.

Occurs through interactions at asperities.

Is not a materials property but is a systems
response.
Wear has important technological and economical significance,
because it alters the shape of workpiece, surface topography,
tool, adversely affecting the Manufacturing process and size
and quality of parts produced.
 Types of wear
Adhesive wear
Abrasive wear
Corrosive wear
Fatigue wear
Fretting wear
Impact wear
Melt wear
Diffusive wear
Cavitation wear Macroscopic wear pattern of
Oxidative wear A cutting tool [Source:gearsolutions.com]
 Archards Law of Wear
States that wear rate W, i.e., volume loss in wear per unit sliding siding
distance is proportional to the real area of contact (which is a small
fraction of apparent area) and is given by,

V
W K Ar K L
S H

Where V is the volume loss after sliding through a distance S under a

normal load of L. H is the hardness of the softer of the two mating
materials (pin).

Ar is the real area of contact given by the ratio L/H.

The constant K is a dimensionless parameter known as the wear

coefficient.
 Wear Testing Geometries

A. Ring on Ring with contact along a line

B. Ring on Ring with face to face contact
C. Pin-on-disk
D. Pin-on-Cylinder
E. Block on Ring
F. Pin on flat
A
 Wear Testing Machines
Various techniques are-
. Pin on disc machine
. Ball on disc machine

(a) A pin on disc set up

.Various types of test rigs e.g.- rubber wheel abrasive wear test rig, air jet erosion
test rig etc..

(b)A erosion wear testing schematic

 Wear Mechanisms
Mechanism of Adhesion:
Adhesion between two metals, transfer of the weaker metal to the stronger

Process of metal transfer due to adhesion.

[source:Engineering Tribology, Third Edition, Gwidon Stachowiak,
Andrew W. Batchelor, elsevier]
 Mechanism of abrasive wear

Mechanisms of abrasive wear: microcutting, fracture, fatigue and grain pull-out.

[source:Engineering Tribology, Third Edition, Gwidon Stachowiak,
Andrew W. Batchelor, elsevier]
Mechanisms of Erosive Wear

Possible mechanisms of
erosion; a) abrasion at low
impact angles, b) surface
fatigue during low speed,
high impingement angle
impact, c) brittle fracture or
multiple plastic deformation
during medium speed, large
impingement angle impact,
d) surface melting at high
impact speeds, e)
macroscopic erosion with
secondary effects
[source:engg. Tribology,
stachowiak, batchelor]
 Fatigue Wear

[source:Engg. Tribology, Stachowiak, batchelor]

 Factors affecting wear

Design
Applied load
Contact area and degree of movement
Lubrication
Environment
Material properties (surface finish, hardness
and microstructure).
 Effect of Microstructure
The mechanical properties of metals and alloys are largely controlled by
microstructural characteristics

Alloying can substantially increase the cohesive strength or hardness of

metals and hence plays a vital role in the reduction of wear.

Multiphase materials - The second phase can affect sliding wear by

hardening of matrix and / or by reducing real area of contact between
solid body and a counter body.

Composites having multiphase structures posses excellent wear

resistance properties. The type of the second phase, its distribution,
volume fraction present in the matrix, particle size, bonding to the
matrix, all determine the wear resistance of the material.
Relative Wear Resistance against Hardness of Various structures
in Steels
 Wear Mechanism Maps
Helpful for designers and engineers who have to make optimal decisions in
situations where tribological considerations are significant, it is important for them
to have ready access to information pertaining to the fundamental understanding
of the wear processes of interest. Regarding these situation wear maps are drawn
which would be helpful for predicting the wear rate of an object which may not be
necessarily to the true value but nearer to it

Development in various group of maps:

- wear maps for metals
- wear maps for ceramics
- wear maps for metal matrix composites
- wear maps for polymers
- wear maps for coatings
- wear maps for cutting tool
- fretting map
- erosion maps
- maps for time-dependents wear transition.
Wear Mechanism Maps

The wear-mechanism map for

alumina proposed Kong and
Ashby, Wear mechanisms in
brittle solids. Acta Metall Mater.,
1992, 40, 29072920.
Wear Mechanism Maps

The empirical wear-mechanism

map for Al/SiCp composites. The
regions of dominance of six
different wear mechanisms are
demarcated with the contours of
constant normalised wear rates
superimposed over them.
Tribology International Vol. 31,
Nos 13, pp. 8797, 1998
 Variation of WearVolume/ Rate with different Parameters

The variation of wear volume as a function

of sliding time at the various temperatures
for a nickel alloy.[source:Role of triboparticles
In dry sliding wear, J. jiang, F.H.stott,M.M.
Stack]
Variation of wear rate with load and
Sliding distance for Al/Si composites
[source:N. Soda, Y. Kimura, A. Tanaka,
Wear,elsevier, 35, pp. 331343]
 7 3e-4
14.7 N Sliding speed = 1.15 m/s DP1
19.6 N DP1 DP3
6
24.5 N 2e-4 DP2 DP4
Cumulative volume loss (mm3)

29.4 N
Sliding speed = 1.15 m/s
34.3 N
5
2e-4 Run-in: Filled symbols

Wear rate (mm3/m)

Steady state: Open symbols
4

1e-4
3

1e-4
2

1 5e-5

0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000
Sliding distance (m) Normal load, N

Variation of Volume loss with Sliding distance and Wear rate with Load Dual Phase Steel
[R. Tyagi et al., Metallurgical and Materials Transactions, Vol. 33A, pp. 3479-3488. ]
 40 40
9.8 N C1 (Al - 0.07 Pct TiC) Pure Al
35 14.7 N Sliding speed = 1.00 m/s
35 Al-0.07 Pct TiC
19.6 N
Al-0.12 Pct TiC
24.5 N
Cumulative wear volume (mm3 x 10-1)

30 Al-0.18 Pct TiC

30

Wear rate (mm3/m x 10-3)

25
25
20
20
15
15
10

10
5

0 5

-5 0
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 2100 2400 5 10 15 20 25 30
Sliding distance (m) Normal load, N

Variation of Volume loss with Sliding distance and Wear rate with Load in Al-TiC
composites
[Tyagi, R. Wear, Vol. 259, pp. 569-576]
 Variation of friction coefficient with normal load

0.70 0.80
Pure Al Counterface steel HRC 62-65
DP1 (MVF = 0.42) Steady state Al-0.07 Pct TiC Sliding speed = 1.00 m/s
0.65 Sliding speed = 1.15 m/s
0.75 Al-0.12 Pct TiC
DP2 (MVF = 0.51)
Al-0.18 Pct TiC
DP3 (MVF = 0.59)
Average coefficient of friction

0.70
0.60

Average coefficient of friction

DP4 (MVF = 0.72)

0.65
0.55
0.60
0.50
0.55

0.45
0.50

0.40
0.45

0.35 0.40
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 5 10 15 20 25 30
Normal load, N Normal load, N

Variation of average coeff. Of friction with Load in DP steels and Al-TiC

composites. [Tyagi et al., Met. Trans. 2001; Tyagi R., Wear, , Vol. 259, pp.
569-576]
 0.80
Base Alloy
0.75 Ni8BN
Ni8BN8Ag
0.70
Ni8BN12Ag
Averge Coefficient of Friction Ni8BN16Ag
0.65
Ni8BN20Ag
0.60

0.55

0.50

0.45

0.40

0.35

0.30
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
0
Temperature ( C)

Variation of average coefficient of friction with temperature at a

constant load of 20N and fixed sliding velocity of 1m/s. [Tyagi et al,
Wear 269 (2010) 884890]
 Minimization of Wear

Major Techniques:

Lubrication: HL, EHL

Wear resistant Coatings
Wear Resistant Composites
Surface Texturing
 Lubrication
Process, or technique employed to reduce wear of one or both surfaces in
close proximity, by interposing a substance called lubricant between the
surfaces to carry or to help carry the load (pressure generated) between the
opposing surfaces.

Lubricant can be :
(a) solid
(b) liquid
(c)solid-liquid
(d) liquid-liquid
(e) gas(exceptionally)
 Solid lubrication
Molybdenum disulphide, tungsten disulphide , molybdenum ditelluride, graphite,
boron nitride, polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE), talc, calcium fluoride, cerium fluoride.
etc....

Graphite bushes act as a solid lubricant

Advantageous in many respect compared to liquid lubricant as:

-superior cleanliness
-lubricate at high tempt
-under vacuum condition
 Need for Self Lubrication
Used where the containment of liquids is a problem and
when liquid lubricants do not meet the advanced
requirements.

Under high vacuum (such as in space), high

temperatures, cryogenic temperatures, radiation, dust,
clean environments, or corrosive environments, and
combinations thereof, solid lubrication may be the only
feasible system.

The materials designed for solid lubrication must not

only display desirable coefficients of friction (0.001 to
0.3) but must maintain good durability in different
environments, such as high vacuum, water, the
atmosphere, cryogenic temperatures, high temperatures,
or dust.
 Crystal Structure of common Solid Lubricants

(a) MoS2 (b) hBN (c) Graphite

 Graphite is structurally composed of planes of polycyclic carbon atoms
that are hexagonal in orientation. The distance of carbon atoms between
planes is longer and therefore the bonding is weaker.

Just like graphite MoS2 has a hexagonal crystal structure with the
intrinsic property of easy shear. MoS2 lubrication performance often
exceeds that of graphite and is effective in vacuum as well whereas
graphite does not.

Hexagonal boron nitride (hBN) is an effective solid lubricant for

applications such as metalworking processes where lubrication at
high-temperatures is required and is widely used in high
temperature wear sealing materials of aerospace engines.

Though it has a graphite-like lamellar structure, its potential in

powder metallurgical materials has not yet been explored because
of its non-wettability and poor sintering characteristics

However, the high thermal stability, good chemical inertness, and

high thermal conductivity, besides its white color, make it suitable
candidate to be reevaluated as a clean lubricant.
 Mechanism of solid lubrication

Mechanism of lubrication by lamellar solids

 Mechanism of friction reduction by soft films on hard substrates
[Source:Engineering Tribology, Third Edition, Gwidon Stachowiak, Andrew W.
Batchelor, elsevier]
 Coatings

Abrasive wear, adhesive wear and fretting are often reduced by wear resistant
coatings.
Applications of wear resistant coatings are found in every industry, for example
it include mining excavator shovels and crushers, cutting and forming tools in the
manufacturing industries , rolling bearings in liquefied natural gas pumps , etc
 Self adaptive coating for wear resistance

Schematic of (a) the monolithic adaptive coating, and (b) its response to
heating. The pinholes in the as-deposited TiNYSZAgMo coating (c) should
allow for control of silver migration to the coating surface upon heating
(d).[Voveodin et al, 515 (2007), Thin Solid Films, pp. 3638-3643]
 Laser Surface Texturing

A typical laser textured surface

SEM micrographs of laser textured

surface: (a) low and (b) high Mag
 Laser Surface Texturing

A comparison of friction coefficient of partial bidirectional and unidirectional LST

bearings, and a baseline untextured bearing at 1500 rpm

Tribol. Lett.,2004, Vol.17, pp. 295300

CoF for TiAlN+Mo/MoS2/Ag coatings (S3) recorded during room
temperature sliding tests against Si3N4. [ Bansyat et al, Surf. & coating
Tech., 203 (2008)
 Design concepts to be fulfilled combining with the concepts
of tough nanocomposites for reversible adaptation

Solid lubricant reservoirs are introduced as amorphous or

poorly crystalline inclusions to minimize reduction in
composite hardness and elastic modulus, since crystalline
solid lubricants are typically very soft
Friction forces and surface reactions with the
environment are used to generate a lubricious transfer
film or skin at the tribological contact, which can self-
adjust with each environmental change i.e., coating
components serve as reservoirs to supply material for the
tribo-skin, where formation of a lubricating film with
the required chemistry and structure reduces friction.
 Schematic of a conceptual design for a nanocomposite tribological
coating with chameleon-like surface adaptive behavior.

[Voevodin et al, TSINGHUA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY pp. 665-679, Vol.10,

Number 6, December 2005]
 3-10 nm
Amorphous YSZ/Au + DLC
matrix

2-5 nm
amorphous or poor hard YSZ nano-
crystalline MoS2 crystals

- amorphous to hexagonal MoS2 in vacuum (or dry N2) at low temperature

- sp3 (DLC) to sp2 (graphite-like) carbon in humid air at low temperature
- amorphous/poor crystalline Au to Au grains on the surface at high
temperature

A.A. Voevodin, T.A. Fitz, J.J. Hu, and J.S. Zabinski, J. Vac. Sci.Techn.A 20 (2002) 1434
Friction coefficient variation of a chameleon YSZ/Au/MoS2/DLC coating in a
test with cycled relative humidity. Friction response is repeatedly switching from
lubrication provided by MoS2 in dry environments to lubrication provided by
DLC in moist conditions. [Voevodin et al, TSINGHUA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
pp. 665-679, Vol.10, Number 6, December 2005
 Future Issues
Twelve Principles of Green Engineering
Friction Biomimetic approaches,
Wear, Surface texturing,
Reduction or complete Environmental
elimination of lubrication, implications of coatings,
including self-lubrication, Real-time monitoring,
Natural and Design for degradation,
Biodegradable Sustainable energy
lubrication, applications
Using sustainable
chemistry and
engineering principles
 Three areas of Green Tribology
(1) Biomimetics for tribological applications,

(2) Environment-friendly lubrication, and

(3)The tribology of renewable energy

application. The integration of these areas
remains a primary challenge for this novel
area of research.
Green tribology is a novel area of science and
technology. It is related to other areas of
tribology as well as other green disciplines,
namely, green engineering and green chemistry.
The twelve principles of green tribology are
formulated, and three areas of tribological
studies most relevant to green tribology are
defined. The integration of these areas remains
the primary challenge of green Tribology and
defines the future directions of research.

Green tribology should be integrated into world

science and make its impact on the solutions for
worldwide problems, such as the change of
climate and the shortage of food and drinking
water.
Jost mentioned the economical potential of the new discipline: the
application of tribological principles alone will, of course, not solve these
world-wide problems. Only major scientific achievements are likely to be
the key to their solution, of which I rate Energy as one of the most
important ones. For such tasks to be achieved, the application of
Tribology, and especially of green Tribology can provide a breathing
space which would enable scientists and technologists to find solutions
to these, mankinds crucial problems and allow time for them to be
implemented by governments, organizations and indeed everyone
operating in this important field. Consequently, this important albeit
limitedbreathing space may be extremely valuable to all working for
the survival of life as we know it. However, the ultimate key is science
and its application. Tribologyespecially green Tribology can andI am
confidentwill play its part to assist and give time for science to achieve
the required solutions and for policy makers to implement them.