Teresa Audesirk Gerald Audesirk Bruce E.

Byers

Biology: Life on Earth

Eighth Edition

Lecture for Chapter 2

Atoms, Molecules, and Life

Copyright 2008 Pearson Prentice Hall, Inc.

 Chapter 2 Outline

2.1 What Are Atoms? p. 22

2.2 How Do Atoms Interact to Form
Molecules? p. 23
2.3 Why is Water So Important to Life? p.
28
 Section 2.1 Outline

2.1 What Are Atoms?

Atoms Are Basic Structural Units Composed
of Still Smaller Particles
Electrons Orbit the Nucleus at Fixed
Distances
Life Depends on the Ability of Electrons to
Capture and Release Energy
 Atoms

Atoms are the fundamental structural

units of matter and are composed of three
types of particles
In the central nucleus there are positively
charged protons and uncharged
neutrons
In orbit around the nucleus are negatively
charged particles called electrons
 Atoms

Atoms are electrically neutral because

they have an equal number of positive
protons as negative electrons
 Atoms

The number of protons in the nucleus of

an atom is known as the atomic number
 Elements and Isotopes

An element is a substance that cannot be

broken down by ordinary chemical reactions
All atoms belong to one of 96 types of
naturally occurring elements
 Elements and Isotopes

The atomic number (number of protons) is

the defining value for an element
All atoms of an element have the same atomic
number
e.g. Carbon has 6 protons, nitrogen has 7
 Elements and Isotopes
Atoms of an element may vary in the
number of neutrons they have in the nucleus
Variant atomic forms of an element are called
isotopes
Some isotopes are radioactive and are used in
research
Elements may occur as solids, liquids, or
gases at room temperature
 Electron Shells
Larger atoms can accommodate more
electrons than smaller ones can
Electrons are distributed about the
nucleus of an atom in electron shells
The first shell or energy level holds 2
electrons
The second shell holds up to 8
 Electron Shells
Roles of the nucleus and the electrons
The nucleus provides stability
The electrons interact with other atoms (e.g.
form bonds)
 Energy Capture and Release
Life depends on electrons capturing and
releasing energy
Electron shells correspond to energy levels
Energy exciting an atom causes an electron
jump from a lower- to higher-energy shell
Later, the electron falls back into its original
shell, releasing the energy
 Section 2.2 Outline

2.2 How Do Atoms Interact to Form

Molecules?
Atoms Interact When There Are Outermost Electron
Shell Vacancies
Charged Atoms (Ions) Form Ionic Bonds
Uncharged Atoms Can Stabilize by Forming
Covalent Bonds
Most Biological Molecules Feature Covalent Bonds
Electron Sharing Determines Covalent Bond
Polarity
Highly Reactive Free Radicals Can Damage Cells
Hydrogen Bonds Are Weak Attractions Within Some
Covalently-Bonded Molecules
 Atoms Interact
Molecules are made of two or more
atoms bonded together through electron
shell interactions
A substance made of atoms of different
elements is a compound
 Atoms Interact
Reactions between atoms depend upon
the configuration of electrons in the
outermost electron shell
 Atoms Interact
Atoms will not react with other atoms if the
outermost shell is completely empty or full
(such atoms considered inert)
Example: Neon, with 8 electrons in outermost
shell (full)
 Atoms Interact
Atoms will react with other atoms if the
outermost shell is partially full (such atoms
considered reactive)
Example: Oxygen, with 6 electrons in
outermost shell (can hold 2 more electrons)
 Atoms Interact
Reactive atoms gain stability by electron
interactions (chemical reactions)
Electrons can be lost to empty the outermost
shell
Electrons can be gained to fill the outermost
shell
Electrons can be shared with another atom
where both atoms have full outermost shells
 Atoms Interact
Hydrogen and oxygen atoms gain stability
by interacting with each other
Single electrons from each of two
hydrogen molecules fill the outer shell of
an oxygen atom
 Atoms Interact
Attractive forces (chemical bonds) hold
atoms together in molecules
 Ions and Ionic Bonds
Atoms that have lost electrons become
positively charged ions (e.g. sodium: Na+)
Atoms that have gained electrons become
negatively charged ions (e.g. chlorine: Cl-)
 Ions and Ionic Bonds
Oppositely charged ions are attracted to
each other are bound into a molecule by
ionic bonds
 Ions and Ionic Bonds
Salt crystals are repeated, orderly arranged
sodium and chloride ions
 Covalent Bonds

Atoms with partially full outer electron

shells can share electrons
Two electrons (one from each atom) are
shared in a covalent bond
 Covalent Bonds

Covalent bonds are found in H2 (single

bond), O2 (double bond), N2 (triple bond)
and H2O
Covalent bonds are stronger than ionic
bonds but vary in their stability
 Covalent Bonds

Most biological molecules contain covalent

bonds
 Polar Covalent Bonds

Atoms within a molecule may have

different nuclear charges
Those atoms with greater positive nuclear
charge pull more strongly on electrons in a
covalent bond
 Polar Covalent Bonds

In diatomic molecules like H2, both atoms

exert the same pulling force on bond
electrons: the covalent bond is nonpolar
 Polar Covalent Bonds

In molecules where atoms of different

elements are involved (H2O), the electrons
are not always equally shared: these
covalent bonds are polar
 Polar Covalent Bonds

A molecule with polar bonds may be polar

overall
H2O is a polar molecule
The (slightly) positively charged pole is
around each hydrogen
The (slightly) negatively charged pole is
around the oxygen
 Polar Covalent Bonds

Polar/nonpolar bonding is illustrated in

Figure 2-6 (a) and (b), p, 26
 Free Radicals

Some cellular reactions produce free

radicals
Free radical: a molecule whose atoms have
one or more unpaired electrons in their outer
shells
 Free Radicals

Free radicals are highly unstable and

reactive
Free radicals steal electrons, destroying other
molecules
Cell death can occur from free radical attack
 Free Radicals

Free radicals are involved in causing heart

disease, Alzheimers, cancer, and aging
Antioxidants like vitamins C and E render
free radicals harmless
 Hydrogen Bonds

Polar molecules like water have partially

charged atoms at their ends
Hydrogen bonds form when partial
opposite charges in different molecules
attract each other
The partially positive hydrogens of one water
molecule are attracted to the partially negative
oxygen on another
 Hydrogen Bonds

Polar biological molecules can form

hydrogen bonds with water, each other, or
even within the same molecule
Hydrogen bonds are rather weak but can
collectively be quite strong
 Section 2.3 Outline

2.3 Why Is Water So Important to Life?

Water Interacts with Many Other Molecules
Water Molecules Tend to Stick Together
Water-Based Solutions Can Be Acidic, Basic,
or Neutral
Buffers Help Maintain Relatively Constant pH
Water Moderates the Effects of Temperature
Change
Water Forms an Unusual Solid: Ice
Water Interacts with Many Molecules

Water is an excellent solvent

A wide range of substances dissolve in water to
form solutions
Water Interacts with Many Molecules

Water-soluble molecules are hydrophilic

Water molecules are attracted to and can
surround ions or polar molecules (dissolving
them), such as sugars and amino acids
Water Interacts with Many Molecules

Water-insoluble molecules are

hydrophobic
Water molecules repel and drive together
uncharged and nonpolar molecules like fats
and oils
The clumping of nonpolar molecules is called
hydrophobic interaction
Water Molecules Tend to Stick Together

Hydrogen bonding between water

molecules produces high cohesion
Water cohesion explains how water molecules
can form a chain in delivering moisture to the
top of a tree
Water Molecules Tend to Stick Together

Cohesion of water molecules along a

surface produces surface tension
Fishing spiders and water striders rely on
surface tension to move across the surface of
ponds
Water Molecules Tend to Stick Together

Water molecules stick to polar or charged

surfaces in the property called adhesion
Adhesion helps water climb up the thin tubes
of plants to the leaves
 Acid, Basic, and Neutral Solutions

A small fraction of water molecules break

apart into ions:
H2O OH- + H+
 Acid, Basic, and Neutral Solutions

Solutions where H+ > OH- are acidic

e.g. Hydrochloric acid ionizes in water:
HCl H+ + Cl-
Lemon juice and vinegar are naturally produced
acids
 Acid, Basic, and Neutral Solutions

Solutions where OH- > H+ are basic

e.g. Sodium hydroxide ionizes in water:
NaOH Na+ + OH-
Baking soda, chlorine bleach, and ammonia are
basic
 Acid, Basic, and Neutral Solutions

The degree of acidity of a solution is

measured using the pH scale
pHs 0-6 are acidic (H+ > OH-)
pH 7 is neutral (H+ = OH-)
pH 8-14 is basic (OH- > H+)
 Buffers Maintain Constant pH

A buffer is a compound that accepts or

releases H+ in response to pH change
The bicarbonate buffer found in our
bloodstream prevents pH change
 Buffers Maintain Constant pH

If the blood becomes too acidic,

bicarbonate accepts (and absorbs) H+ to
make carbonic acid
HCO3- + H+ H2CO3
bicarbonate hydrogen ion carbonic acid
 Buffers Maintain Constant pH

If the blood becomes too basic, carbonic

acid liberates hydrogen ions to combine
with OH- to form water
H2CO3 + OH- HCO3- + H2O
carbonic acid hydroxide ion bicarbonate water
 Water Stabilizes Temperature

Very low or very high temperatures may

damage enzymes or slow down important
chemical reactions
 Water Stabilizes Temperature

Water moderates the effect of temperature

change
Temperature reflects the speed of molecular
motion
It requires 1 calorie of energy to raise the
temperature of 1g of water 1oC (the specific
heat of water), so it heats up very slowly
 Water Stabilizes Temperature

Water requires a lot of energy to turn from

liquid into a gas (heat of vaporization)
Evaporating water uses up heat from its
surroundings, cooling the nearby environment
(as occurs during sweating)
 Water Stabilizes Temperature
Because the human body is mostly water, a
sunbather can absorb a lot of heat energy
without sending her/his body temperature
soaring
 Water Stabilizes Temperature

Water requires a lot of energy to be

withdrawn in order to freeze (heat of
fusion)
Water freezes more slowly than other
liquids
Water Forms an Unusual Solid: Ice

Most substances become denser when

they solidify from a liquid
Ice is unusual because it is less dense
than liquid water
Water Forms an Unusual Solid: Ice

Water molecules spread apart slightly

during the freezing process
Water Forms an Unusual Solid: Ice

Ice floats in liquid water

Ponds and lakes freeze from the top
down and never freeze completely to the
bottom
Many plants and fish therefore are not
frozen