History Content of the

Emergence of each
Discipline

Prepared by :
4th Presenter
 Anthropology
the study of all aspects of human
life and culture. Anthropology
examines such topics as how
people live, what they think, what
they produce, and how they
interact with their environments.
Anthropologists try to understand
the full range of human diversity
 Fields of Anthropology

Cultural Anthropology
Linguistic Anthropology
Archaeology
Physical Anthropology
 Anthropology: QUESTIONS
ASKED
Anthropologists ask such basic questions
as: When, where, and how did humans
evolve? How do people adapt to different
environments? How have societies
developed and changed from the ancient
past to the present? Answers to these
questions can help us understand what it
means to be human. They can also help us
to learn ways to meet the present-day
needs of people all over the world and to
 Anthropology: Historical
Background
The European Age of Enlightenment of the 17th
and 18th centuries marked the rise of scientific
and rational philosophical thought. Enlightenment
thinkers, such as Scottish-born David Hume, John
Locke of England, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau of
France, wrote a number of humanistic works on
the nature of humankind. They based their work
on philosophical reason rather than religious
authority and asked important anthropological
questions. Rousseau, for instance, wrote on the
moral qualities of primitive societies and about
human inequality. But most writers of the
 ECONOMICS

social science concerned

with the production,
distribution, exchange,
and consumption of
goods and services.
 ECONOMICS: Historical
(Mercantilism)
The development of modern nationalism
during the 16th century shifted attention
to the problem of increasing the wealth
and power of the various nation-states.
The economic policy of the leaders of that
time, known as mercantilism, sought to
encourage national self-sufficiency. The
heyday of the mercantilist school in
England and western Europe occurred
during the 16th through the early 18th
 ECONOMICS: Historical
[Mercantilism]
Mercantilists valued gold and silver as an
index of national power. Without the
gold and silver mines in the New World
from which Spain drew its riches, a nation
could accumulate these precious metals
only by selling more merchandise to
foreigners than it bought from them. This
favorable balance of trade necessarily
compelled foreigners to cover their
deficits by shipping gold and silver.
 ECONOMICS: Historical
(Mercantilism)
Mercantilists took for granted that their
own country was either at war with its
neighbors, recovering from a recent
conflict, or getting ready to plunge into a
new war. With gold and silver, a ruler
could hire mercenaries to fight, a practice
followed by King George III of the United
Kingdom of Great Britain when he used
Hessian troops during the American
Revolution. As needed, the monarch could
also buy weapons, uniforms, and food to
supply the soldiers and sailors
 GEOGRAPHY

science that deals with the

distribution and arrangement
of all elements of the earth's
surface. The word geography
was adopted in the 200s BC by
the Greek scholar Eratosthenes
and means earth description.
 GEOGRAPHY: Branches
1. Physical geography includes the following
fields: geomorphology, which uses geology to
study the form and structure of the surface of
the earth; climatology, which involves
meteorology and is concerned with climatic
conditions; biogeography, which uses biology
and deals with the distribution of plant and
animal life; soils geography/Soil Management,
which is concerned with the distribution of soil;
hydrography, which concerns the distribution of
seas, lakes, rivers, and streams in relation to their
uses; oceanography which deals with the waves,
tides, and currents of oceans and theocean floor
 GEOGRAPHY: Branches
. Cultural Geography. This classification,
sometimes called human geography, involves all
phases of human social life in relation to the
physical earth. Economic geography, a field of
cultural geography, deals with the industrial use
of the geographic environment. Natural
resources, such as mineral and oil deposits,
forests, grazing lands, and farmlands, are studied
with reference to their position, productivity, and
potential uses. Manufacturing industries rely on
geographic studies for information concerning
raw materials, sources of labor, and distribution
of goods. Marketing studies concerned with
plant locations and sales potentials are based on
 GEOGRAPHY: Branches

Cultural geography also includes political

geography, which is an application of
political science. Political geography deals
with human social activities that are
related to the locations and boundaries of
cities, nations, and groups of nations.
Military geography provides military
leaders with information about areas in
which they may need to operate. The
many other fields of cultural geography
 GEOGRAPHY: History
The earliest geographers were concerned with
exploring unknown areas and with describing
the observable features of different places. Such
ancient peoples as the Chinese, Egyptians, and
Phoenicians made long journeys and recorded
their observations of strange lands. One of the
first known maps was made on a clay tablet in
Babylonia about 2300 BC. By 1400 BC, the shores
of the Mediterranean Sea had been explored
and charted, and during the next thousand years,
early explorers visited Britain and navigated most
of the African coast. The ancient Greeks,
 HISTORY: Definition
History and Historiography.
History, in its broadest sense, is the
totality of all past events, although a
more realistic definition would limit it
to the known past. Historiography is
the written record of what is known of
human lives and societies in the past
and how historians have attempted to
understand them.
 HISTORY: Approaches
Historians have looked more and more to
the social sciencessociology,
psychology, anthropology, and
economicsfor new methods and forms
of explanation; the sophisticated use of
quantitative data has become the
accepted approach to economic and
demographic studies. The influence of
Marxist theories of economic and social
development remains vital and
 HISTORY: Definition
as does the application of psychoanalytic
theory to history. At the same time, many
scholars have turned with sharpened
interest to the theoretical foundations of
historical knowledge and are
reconsidering the relation between
imaginative literature and history, with
the possibility emerging that history may
after all be the literary art that works
upon scholarly material.
 LINGUISTICS: Definition
Linguistics, the scientific study of
language. It encompasses the
description of languages, the
study of their origin, and the
analysis of how children acquire
language and how people learn
languages other than their own.
 Political Science: Meaning
Political Science, the systematic study
of and reflection upon politics. Politics
usually describes the processes by
which people and institutions exercise
and resist power. Political processes
are used to formulate policies,
influence individuals and institutions,
and organize societies
 LINGUISTICS: History
In the early 20th century, linguistics
expanded to include the study of unwritten
languages. In the United States linguists and
anthropologists began to study the rapidly
disappearing spoken languages of Native
North Americans. Because many of these
languages were unwritten, researchers could
not use historical analysis in their studies. In
their pioneering research on these languages,
anthropologists Franz Boas and Edward Sapir
developed the techniques of descriptive
linguistics and theorized on the ways in which
language shapes our perceptions of the
world.
 PSYCHOLOGY: Meaning
Psychology, the scientific study of behavior and
the mind. This definition contains three elements.
The first is that psychology is a scientific enterprise
that obtains knowledge through systematic and
objective methods of observation and
experimentation. Second is that psychologists
study behavior, which refers to any action or
reaction that can be measured or observedsuch
as the blink of an eye, an increase in heart rate, or
the unruly violence that often erupts in a mob.
Third is that psychologists study the mind, which
refers to both conscious and unconscious mental
states. These states cannot actually be seen, only
inferred from observable behavior.
 Political Science: History
The systematic study of politics dates to
ancient times. The oldest legal and
administrative code that survives in its
entirety is the Code of Hammurabi,
inscribed on a pillar of black basalt.
Hammurabi, a Babylonian king who ruled
from 1792 to 1750 BC, described the laws
in his code as enabling stable
government and good rule. Hammurabis
justification indicates that the reasoning
 PSYCHOLOGY: History
From about 600 to 300 BC, Greek
philosophers inquired about a wide range
of psychological topics. They were
especially interested in the nature of
knowledge and how human beings come
to know the world, a field of philosophy
known as epistemology. The Greek
philosopher Socrates and his followers,
Plato and Aristotle, wrote about pleasure
and pain, knowledge, beauty, desire, free
will, motivation, common sense,
rationality, memory, and the subjective
 Sociology: Meaning

Sociology, the
scientific study of
human social
relations or group
life.
 Sociology: History
The first definition of sociology was
advanced by the French philosopher
Auguste Comte. In 1838 Comte coined the
term sociology to describe his vision of a
new science that would discover laws of
human society resembling the laws of
nature by applying the methods of factual
investigation that had proved so
successful in the physical sciences. The
British philosopher Herbert Spencer