Unit-1

SET LANGUAGE AND

ALGEBRA
 1.1Set Language- Introduction

The concept of set is vital to mathematical thought and

is being used in almost every branch of mathematics. In
mathematics, sets are convenient because all
mathematical structures can be regarded as sets
Description of Sets

A group or a collection of objects, such as a collection

of books, a group of students, a list of states in a
country, a collection of coins, etc. Set maybe
considered as a mathematical way of representing a
collection or a group of objects
Representation of a Set

A set can be represented in any one of the following

three ways or forms.
(i) Descriptive Form
(ii) Set-Builder Form or Rule Form
(iii) Roster Form or Tabular Form
Different kinds of sets

Empty set
Finite set
Infinite set
Singleton set
Equal set
Equivalent set
Subset
Proper sub set
Power set
SET OPERATIONS
Venn Diagrams
We use diagrams or pictures in geometry to explain a
concept or a situation and sometimes we also use them
to solve problems. In mathematics, we use
diagrammatic representations called Venn Diagrams
to visualise the relationships between sets and set
operations
Universal set
The set that contains all the elements under
consideration in a given discussion is called the
universal set. The universal set is denoted by U or
Complement of a set
The set of all elements of U (universal set) that are not
elements of is called the Complement of A. The
complement of A is denoted by A
Union of sets
The union of two sets A and B is the set of elements
which are in A or in B or in both A and B. We write the
union of sets A and B as AU B.
Intersections of a set
The intersection of two sets A and B is the set of all
elements common to both A and B. We denote it as A
B.
Disjoint sets

Two sets A and B are said to be disjoint if there is no

element common to both A and B.In other words, if A
and B are disjoint sets, then A B =
Difference of two sets
The difference of the two sets A and B is the set of all
elements belonging to A but not to B. The difference of
the two sets is denoted by A - B or A\B.
Symmetric difference of two sets

The symmetric difference of two sets A and B is the

union of their differences and is denoted by A B.
1.2Properties of set operations
Commutative property
(i)
A B = BA (set union is commutative)
A B = B A (set intersection is commutative)

(ii) Associative property

(a) A BC )=(A BC (set union is associative)
(b) A (B C) = (A B)C (set intersection is associative)
iii) Distributive property

(a) ABC) = (AB) (AC) (intersection distributes over

union)
(b) A B C = (A B(AC) (union distributes over
intersection)
De Morgans laws for set difference

For any three sets A,B and C, we have

(i) A \ (BC )= (A \ B(A \ C)

(ii) A \ BC= (A \ B (A \ C).

De Morgans laws for complementation

Let U be the universal set containing sets A and B. Then

1.(AB)=A
2.(A=A
Cardinally
of sets
n(A=n(A)+n(B)-n(A.

n(A =n(A)+n(B)+n(C)-n(A-n(B +n(ABC),

FUNCTIONS
Let A and B be any two non empty sets. A function
from A to B is a relation
f A B such that the following hold:
(i) Domain of f is A.
(ii) For each xA, there is only one yB such that
(x, y) f .
1.3 ALGEBRA INTRODUCTION
Algebric expressions
An algebraic expressionis an example for from any
combination of numbers and variables by using the
operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication by
using the operations of addition , subtraction discussion.
Polynomials
polynomial is an algebraic expression, in which no
variables appear in denominators or under radical signs
and all variables that do appear are powers of positive
integers
TYPES OF POLYNOMIALS
Monomial
Polynomials which have only one term are known as
monomials.
Binomial
Polynomials which have only two terms are called binomials.
Trinomial
Polynomials which have only three terms are named as
trinomials.
Constant Polynomial
A polynomial of degree zero is called a constant polynomial.
General form : p(x) = c, where c is a real number.
Linear Polynomial
A polynomial of degree one is called a linear polynomial.
General form : p(x) = ax+b, where a and b are real
numbers and a 0.
Quadratic Polynomial
A polynomial of degree two is called a quadratic
polynomial.
General form: p(x)=
where a, b and c are real numbers and a 0.
Cubic Polynomial
A polynomial of degree three is called a cubic polynomial.
General form : p(x) = , where a,b,c and d are real numbers
a 0.
Remainder theorem
Let p(x) be any polynomial and a be any real number.
If p(x) is divided by the linear polynomial x - a, then
the remainder is p(a).
1.4SYNTHETIC DIVISION
Synthetic Division: An elegant way of dividing a
polynomial by a linear
polynomial was introduced by Paolo Ruffin in 1809.
His method is
known as synthetic division. It facilitates the
division of a polynomial
by a linear polynomial with the help of the coefficients
involved.
Greatest Common Divisor (GCD)
The Highest Common Factor (HCF) or Greatest
Common Divisor (GCD) of two or
more algebraic expressions is the expression of highest
degree which divides each of them
without remainder.
Least Common Multiple (LCM)
The least common multiple of two or more algebraic
expressions is the expression of
lowest degree which is divisible by each of them
without remainder.
1.5 Rational Expressions-Square roots-Quadratic
Equations

Rational expression defined as m/n of two angles m

and n0 . A rational expression is a quotient p(x)/ Q(x)
of two polynomials p(x) and q(x), where q(x) is a non-
zero polynomial.
Rational expression in lowest form
If the two polynomials p(x)and q(x) have the integer
coefficient such that GCD of p(x) and q(x) is 1, then
we say that p(x)/q(x) is rational expression in its lowest
terms.
Multiplication and division of rational
expressions
If p(x)/q(x) ;q(x)0 and g(x)/h(x): h(x)0 are two
rational expressions, then

Unit-2
GEOMETRY
Geometry Basics
Kinds of Angle:There are four types of angles that is
Acute Angle
Right angle
Obtuse angle
Reflex angle
Complementary Angles:Two angles are said to
be complementary to each other if sum of their
measures is 90

Supplementary Angles:Two angles are said to

be supplementary to each other if sum of their
measures is 180.
Parallel Lines:
Lines in the same plane that do not intersect are
called parallel lines.

The distance between two parallel lines always

remains the same
Intersecting Lines:
Two lines having a common point are called
intersecting lines. The point common to the two
given lines is called their point of intersection.

Concurrent Lines:
Three or more lines passing through the same
point are said to be concurrent.
Transversal:
A straight line that intersects two or more straight
lines at distinct points is called a transversal.
Types based on angles and sign metry its properties
Scalentraingle
A scalene triangle is a triangle that has no equal sides.
Isosceles triangle
An isosceles triangle is a triangle that has two equal
sides.
Equilateral triangle
An equilateral triangle is a triangle that has three equal
sides.
Quadrilateral
A closed geometric figure with four sides and four
vertices is called a quadrilateral.
The sum of all the four angles of a quadrilateral is
360c.
Family of Quadrilateral
Basic Proportionality and Angle Bisector Theorems
If a straight line is drawn parallel to one sideof a
triangle intersecting the other two sides, then it
divides the two sides in the same ratio.
Converse of Basic Proportionality Theorem
( Converse of Thales Theorem)
If a straight line divides any two sides of a triangle in
the same ratio, then the line must be parallel to the
third side.
Similar Triangles
Two triangles are similar if
(i) their corresponding angles are equal (or)
(ii) their corresponding sides have lengths in the same
ratio (or proportional),which is equivalent to saying
that one triangle is an enlargement of other
Congruent Triangles
Two triangles are congruent if and only if one of them
can be made to superpose on the other, so as to cover it
exactly.
Circles and Tangents:
A straight line which touches a circle at only one point
is called a tangent to the circle and the point at which
it touches the circle is called its point of contact.
Theorems based on circles and tangents
1. A tangent at any point on a circle is perpendicular to the radius through
the point of contact .
2. Only one tangent can be drawn at any point on a circle. However, from
an exterior point of a circle two tangents can be drawn to the circle.
3. The lengths of the two tangents drawn from an exterior point to a circle
are equal.
4. If two circles touch each other, then the point of contact of the circles
lies on the line joining the centres.
5. If two circles touch externally, the distance between their centres is
equal to the sum of their radii.
6. If two circles touch internally, the distance between their centres is
equal to the difference of their radii.
Pythagoras theorem
In a right angled triangle, the square of the hypotenuse
is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two
sides.
Unit-3
Co-Ordinate Geometry
Cartesian Co-ordinate system

A Cartesian coordinate system or rectangle coordinate

system consists of two perpendicular number lines,
called coordinate axes. The two number lines intersect
at the zero point of each as shown in the Fig. 5.1 and this
point is called origin O. Generally the horizontal
number line is called the x-axis and the vertical number
line is called the y-axis. The x-coordinate of a point to
the right of the y-axis is positive and to the left of y-axis
is negative. Similarly, the y-coordinate of a point above
the x-axis is positive and below the x-axis is negative
Quadrants:
A plane with the rectangular coordinate system is
called the cartesian plane. The coordinate axes divide
the plane into four parts called quadrants, numbered
counter-clockwise. The x-coordinate is positive in the I
and IV quadrants and negative in II and III quadrants.
The y-coordinate is positive in I and II quadrants and
negative in III and IV quadrants.
Section Formula
Thus, the point P which divides the line segment
joining the two points
A(x1,y1) and b(x2,Y2) internally in the ratio
l :m is p lx2+mx1/l+m, ly2+my1/l+m
This formula is known as section formula
Straight line -Angle of inclination
Let a straight line l intersect the x-axis at A. The angle
between the positive x-axis and the line l, measured in
counter clockwise direction is called the angle of
inclination of the straight line l .
Slope of a straight line
If i is the angle of inclination of a non-vertical straight
line l, then tani is called the Slope or Gradient of the
line and is denoted by m.
Condition for parallel lines and perpendicular lines in terms of their
slopes.

If two non-vertical straight lines are parallel, then

their slopes are equal.
The converse is also true. i.e., if the slopes of two lines
are equal, then the straight lines are parallel.
If two non-vertical straight lines with slopes m1 and
m2 , are perpendicular, then
m1m2 = 1.
On the other hand, if m1m2 = 1, then the two straight
lines are perpendicular
Equation of a straight line
The equation of a straight line in the following forms:
(a) Slope-Point form
(b)Two-Points form
(c) Slope-Intercept formy = mx + c is the equation of
straight line in the Slope-Intercept form.
(d) Intercepts form
General form of Equation
Equation of a line parallel to the line.We know that
two straight lines are parallel if and only if their slopes
are equal.
Equation of the line perpendicular to the lineWe
know that two non-vertical lines are perpendicular if
and only if the product oftheir slopes is 1.
 Unit-4
Trigonometry
Trigonometric Ratios
The six trigonometricratios ofiare as follows
sin i =Hypotenuse/Opposite side
cosec i =Opposite side/Hypotenuse
cosi =Hypotenuse/Adjacent side
sec i =Adjacent side/Hypotenuse
tan i =Adjacent side/Opposite side
coti =Opposite side/Adjacent side.
Reciprocal Relations
The trigonometric ratios cosec i, sec i and cot i are
reciprocals of sin i, cosi
andtan i respectively.
sin i =1/cosec i
cosi =1/sec i
tan i =1/cot i
cosec i =1/sin i
sec i =1/cos i
cot i =1/tan
Trigonometric Ratios
Trigonometric Ratios for Complementary angles
Trigonometric identities
Height and Distance
Line of sight
If we are viewing an object, the line of sightis a straight line from our eye to the
object. Here we treat the object as a point since distance involved is quite large.
Angle of depression
If an object is below the horizontal line from the eye, we have to lower our head
to
view the object. In this process our eyes moves through an angle. This angle is
called the angle of depression,
Angle of elevation
If an object is above the horizontal line from our eyes we have to raise our head
to view the object. In this process our eyes move through an angle formed by the
line of sight and horizontal line which is called the angle of elevation.
Unit-5

Statistics and
Probability
Data
Data is a set of values of qualitative or quantitative
variables.
Raw data
A group of obtained individual scores is known as raw
data.
Grouped data
Data that is present in the form of a frequency
distribution is known as grouped data.
Frequency table
Frequency distribution is a table in which raw scores
are arranged in the form of classes and class
frequencies.
Measures of central tendency

Arithmetic Mean - Raw Data

The arithmetic mean is the sum of a set of
observations, positive, negative or zero,
divided by the number of observations. If we have n
real numbers x1,x2,x3....,xn, then their
arithmetic mean, denoted by x , is given by x/n
Mode
The Mode of a distribution is the value at the point
around which the items tend to be most heavily
concentrated.
Median

Median is defined as the middle item of the given

observations arranged in order.
(i) Arrange the n given numbers in ascending or
descending order of magnitude.
(ii) When n is odd, th observation is the median.
(iii) When n is even the median is the arithmetic mean
of the two middle values.
i.e., when n is even,
Measures of Dispersion
Range:
Range is the simplest measure of dispersion. Range of
a set of numbers is the difference between the largest
and the smallest items of the set.
` Range = Largest value - Smallest value= L-S.
Co-efficient of Range
The coefficient of range is given by
L-S/L+S
Standard deviation

A better way to measure dispersion is to square the

differences between each data and the mean before
averaging them.
This measure of dispersion is known as the Variance
and the positive square root of the Variance is known
as the Standard Deviation.
Coefficient of variation

Coefficient of variation is defined

c.v= /X *100
Probability

The set of all possible outcomes of a random

experiment is called its sample space and
it is denoted by the letter S. Each repetition of the
experiment is called a trial.
A subset of the sample space S is called an event.
Equally likely events

Two or more events are said to be equally likely if each

one of them has an equal chance of occurrence.
In tossing a coin, the occurrence of Head and the
occurrence of Tail are equally likely Events
Mutually exclusive events

Two or more events are said to be mutually exclusive if

theoccurrence of one event prevents the occurrence of
other events.
That is, mutually exclusive events cant occur
simultaneously.
Thus, if A and B are two mutually exclusive events,
then A =B=
Complementary events
Let Ebe an event of a random experiment and S be its
sample space. The set containing all the other
outcomes which are not in E
But in the sample space is called the complimentary
event of E. It is
denoted by E. Thus, E = S - E. Note that E and E are
mutually exclusive events
Exhaustive events
Events E1, E2,..,En are exhaustive events if their union
is the sample space S.
Sure event
The sample space of a random experiment is called
sure or certain event as any one of
its elements will surely occur in any trail of the
experiment.
Impossible event
An event which will not occur on any account is called
an impossible event.
It is denoted by z.
For example, getting 7 in rolling a die once is an
impossible event.
Classical definition of probability

If a sample space contains n outcomes and if m of

them are favourable to an event A,
then, we write n(S) = n and n(A) = m . The Probability
of the event A, denoted by P(A), is
defined as the ratio of m to n.
p(A)= number of out comes / Total number of out
comes
Addition theorem on probability

Let A and B be subsets of a finite non-empty set S. Then

n(AUB) = n(A) + n(B) - n(AB) .
The above classical definition of probability is not
applicable if the number of possible outcomes is infinite
and the outcomes are not equally likely.
(ii) The probability of an event Alies between 0 and 1, both
inclusive; That is 0 P(A) 1.
(iii) The probability of the sure event is 1. That is P(S) =1.
(iv) The probability of an impossible event is 0. That is
P()=0