-Rachelle Balonso

-Jonnalyn Napocao
IV-BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE
A. MONOSACCHARIDES
Can be classified according to the
-
number of carbon atoms they contain.
Carbohydrates with an aldehyde as their
most oxidized functional group are
called ALDOSES; those with a keto
group as their most oxidized
functional group are called KETOSES.
-Disaccharides contain two
monosaccharide.
-Oligosaccharides contain from 3
to about 12 monosaccharide
units.
-Polysaccharides contain more
than 12 monosaccharide unit.
A. Isomers and epimers
-compounds that have the same
chemical formula are called
ISOMERS.
Chemical formula : C6H12O6
-if two monosaccharide differ in
configuration around one specific
carbon atom are called EPIMERS.
 - A special type of
isomerism is found in the
pairs of structures that are
mirror images of each
other.
-less than 1% of each of the
monosaccharides with five or more
carbons exists in the open-chain
(acyclic) form.
-they are found in a ring form, where
the aldehyde (or ketone) group has
reacted with an alcohol group on the
same sugar to form a HEMIACETAL
or HEMIKETAL RING.
-formation of hemiacetal ring
results in the creation of an
anomeric carbon at carbon 1
of an aldose, or 2 of a ketose.
-is a process that requires the ring
structures open to the linear form
during the interconversion.
- it results in characteristic
changes in the optical rotation of
polarized light.
FISHCHER PROJECTION
-the carbon is written vertically,
with carbon 1 at the top, and the
hydroxyl and hydrogen
substituents written to the left or
the right.
HAWORTH PROJECTION
- where carbon 1 is drawn farthest to
the right, the plane of the ring is flat
on the paper, and the H, -OH, and
CH2OH groups project either above
or below the plane of the paper.
A. Reducing Sugars
-oxygen on the anomeric carbon
of a sugar is not attached to any
other structure.
Oxidation of the CH2-OH group at
carbon 6 produces a uronic acid.
Aglycone
-non carbohydrate portion of the
molecules.
Glycoside
-is the generic name for the entire
molecule.
Glycoside residue
-the aldose, the carbon 1 of which
participates in the glycosidic link.
O-glycoside
-is a structure on the aglycone to which the
sugar is attached is an OH group.
N-glycoside
-is a group on the aglycone is an NH2
group.
- named according to the numbers of the
connected carbons.
- position of the anomeric hydroxyl group of
sugar.
- is synthesized by forming a
glycosidic bond between carbon 1 of
a B-galactose and carbon 4 of
glucose.
-is synthesized by forming a
glycosidic bond between carbon 1 of
a a-galactose and carbon 2 of B-
fructose.
A. Digestion of carbohydrates
begins in the mouth

-Mastication acts as briefly on dietary

starch in a random manner, breaking some
a-(14) bonds.
-Neutralized by bicarbonate secreted by the
pancreas, and pancreatic a-amylase
continues the process of starch digestion.
- Final digestive occurs at the mucosal lining
of the upper jejunum, down the small
intestine.
- Include the action of several
disaccharidases and oligosaccharidases.
- Doudenum and upper jejunum
absorb the bulk of the dietary sugars.
1.Hereditary effects
- infants and children have been reported
with a disaccharides intolerance.
2. Generalized defects
- caused by a variety of intestinal diseases,
malnutrition, or drugs that injure the
mucosa of the small intestine.
The mechanism by which the enzyme is
lost is not clear, but is determined
genetically and represents a reduction in
the amount of enzyme protein rather than
a modified inactive enzyme.
-results in an intolerance of indigested
sucrose.
- treatment is to withhold dietary sucrose.
-specific enzyme deficiencies can obtained
by oral tolerance tests with the individual
disaccharides.
-measurement of hydrogen gas in the
breath for determining the amount of
ingested carbohydrate not absorbed by the
body.
A. Dietary sources of fructose
-can be found as a free
monosaccharides in many fruits and
vegetables and in honey.
Hexokinase and fructokinase helps
fructose to enter the pathways of
intermediary metabolism and must be
phosphorylated first.
It is not converted to fructose 1,6-
biphosphate as is fructose 6-phosphate,
but is cleaved by aldolase B into
dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) and
D-glyceraldehyde.
- more rapid than glucose because trioses
formed from fructose 1-phosphate bypass
phosphofructokinase, the major rate-
limiting step in glycolysis.
1. High-fructose diets
2. Genetics diseases
- C-2 epimer of glucose , is an
important component of
glycoproteins.
- Hexokinase phosphorylates
mannose, producing mannose 6-
phosphate, which in turn is
isomerized to fructose 6-phospate by
phosphomannose isomerase.
1. Synthesis of sorbitol
2. The effect of hyperglycemia on sorbitol
metabolism.
A. Phosphorylation of galactose
-D-galactose must b e phosphorylated
before it metabolized.
- ATP is the phosphate donor
-Galactose 1-phosphate cannot enter the
glycolytic pathway unless it is first
converted to UDP-galactose.
- UMP is removed from UDP-glucose and
transferred to galactose 1-phosphate,
producing UDP-galactose.