Chapter No. 01 and 02 Introduction To Hydrology. Precipitation

Chapter 01 and 02
1) introduction to hydrology and the hydrological cycle.

2) Precipitation
hydrology and water management fall 2017
By. Engr.Rahat Ullah 1

outline
Hydrology and water management definitions
Branches of Hydrology
Applications of hydrology
The hydrological cycle
Precipitation and forms of precipitation
Factors affecting the formation of precipitation
Classification of precipitation based on lifting mechanism
Measurement of precipitation
Analysis of precipitation data
Estimation of average precipitation over a basin
Hydrology
The word hydrology means science of water which deals with the
characteristics of the earths water in all its aspects such as
occurrence, circulation, distribution, physical and chemical properties,
and impact on environment and living things.
Hydrology is an essential field of science since everything from tiny organisms to

individuals to societies to the whole of civilization - depends so much on water.

Water management
Water resource management is the activity of planning, developing,
distributing and managing the optimum use of water resources.

Branches of Hydrology
Hydrology can generally be divided into two main branches:
1) Engineering Hydrology
(Planning, design and Operation of Engineering projects for the control and use of water)
2) Applied Hydrology
(Hydrological cycle, precipitation, runoff, relationship between precipitation and runoff, hydrographs, Flood Routing)

Branches of Hydrology (cont.)
Hydrology can be divided into the following branches
Chemical hydrology is the study of the chemical characteristics of water.
Ecohydrology is the study of interactions between organisms and the hydrologic cycle.
Hydrogeology is the study of the presence and movement of ground water.
Hydroinformatics is the adaptation of information technology to hydrology and water resources
applications.
Hydrometeorology is the study of the transfer of water and energy between land and water body
surfaces and the lower atmosphere.
Isotope hydrology is the study of the isotopic signatures of water.
Surface hydrology is the study of hydrologic processes that operate at or near Earth's surface.
Drainage basin management covers water-storage, in the form of reservoirs, and flood-protection.
Water quality includes the chemistry of water in rivers and lakes, both of pollutants and natural
solutes.
Surface water Hydrology : is the study of hydrologic processes that operate at or near earths surface.

Application of Hydrology
Determining the water balance of a region.
Determining the agricultural water balance.
Mitigation and predicting floods, landslides and drought risk.
Designing irrigation schemes and managing agricultural productivity.
Designing dams for water supply or hydroelectric power generation.
Designing bridges.
Designing sewers and urban drainage system.
Predicting geomorphologic changes, such as, erosion or sedimentation.
Assessing the impact of natural and anthropogenic environmental change.
Assessing containment transport risk and establishing environmental policy guidelines

Hydrological cycle
Hydrological cycle also known as Water cycle or HO cycle, describes the
continuous Movement of water on, above and below the surface of the earth.

The hydrological cycle

Hydrological cycle (cont.)
The main processes involved in hydrological cycle are
Evaporation
Condensation
Precipitation
Interception
Infiltration
Percolation
Transpiration
Runoff
storage

The main processes
Evaporation
Water is transferred from the surface to the atmosphere through
evaporation, the process by which water changes from a liquid to a gas. The
suns heat provides energy to evaporate water from the earths surface. Land,
lakes, rivers and oceans send up a steady stream of water vapour and plants
also lose water to the air (transpiration).
Approximately 80% of all evaporation is from the oceans, with the remaining
20% coming from inland water and vegetation.
Condensation
Condensation is the process in which water vapor changes into liquid water.
Condensation occurs as air with water vapor in it cools. Clouds are evidence
of condensation. Clouds are formed when water vapor cools and condenses
into tiny liquid water droplets.
The transported water vapor eventually condenses, forming tiny droplets in
clouds.
Continued..
Precipitation
The primary mechanism for transporting water from the atmosphere to the surface
of the earth is precipitation.
When the clouds meet cool air over land, precipitation, in the form of rain, sleet or
snow, is triggered and water returns to the land (or sea).
A proportion of atmospheric precipitation evaporates.
Interception
Interception refers to precipitation that does not reach the soil, but is instead
intercepted by the leaves and branches of plants and the forest floor. Because of
evaporation, interception of liquid water generally leads to loss of that precipitation
for the drainage basin.
Continued..
Infiltration
The infiltration of water from precipitation into the soil is an important topic.
In some circumstances a dry soil may not absorb rainfall as readily as a soil that is already
wet.
Infiltration can sometimes be measured by an infiltrometer.
Percolation
water that enters the soil can move either vertically or laterally through the soil.
Significant lateral movement of water through soil is called through flow or interflow.
Downward movement of water through the soil is called percolation.
Transpiration
Some water clings to soil particles and is drawn into the roots of growing plants. It is
transported to leaves where it is lost to the atmosphere as vapor. This process is called
transpiration.

Continued..
Run-off
Groundwater flows through rock and soil layers of the earth until it discharges as a
spring or seep into a stream, lake, or ocean. The groundwater contribution to a
stream is called baseflow, while the total flow in a stream is called runoff.
Storage
There are three basic locations of water storage that occur in the earth s water
cycle.
Water is stored in the atmosphere; water is stored on the surface of the earth, and
water stored in the ground.

The water cycle begins with the evaporation of water from oceans and other
water bodies.
The resulting vapors are transported by moving air and under proper conditions,
the vapor are condensed to form clouds, which in turn results in precipitation.
The precipitation which falls upon land is dispersed in several ways.
The greater part is temporarily retained in the soil near where it falls and is
ultimately returned to the atmosphere by evaporation and transpiration by
plants.
A portion of the water flows over surface soil to stream channels, while other
penetrates into the ground to become part of the ground water.
Under the influence of gravity, both surface and underground water move
towards lower elevations and may eventually discharge into the oceans.
This Hydrologic Cycle recycles the earths valuable water supply. In other words,
the water keeps getting reused over and over.
Just think, the next glass of water you drink could have been used by a dinosaur
in the Mesozoic Era one hundred million years ago!
Water in that glass could have been a liquid, a solid, and a gas countless times
over thanks to the water cycle.

Precipitation
The term precipitation as used in hydrology is meant for all forms of moisture
emanating from the clouds and all forms of water like rain, snow, hail and sleet
derived from atmospheric vapors, falling to the ground.
Precipitation is one of the most important events of hydrology.

Floods and droughts are directly related to the occurrence of precipitation.
Water resources management, water supply schemes, irrigation, hydrologic
data for design of hydraulic structures and environmental effects of water
resources development projects are related to precipitation in one way or
the other.

Forms of Precipitation
Drizzle :
These are the minute particles of water at start of rain.
These consist of water drops under 0.5 mm diameter and its intensity is usually less than
1.0 mm/hr. Their speed is very slow and we cannot even feel them.
They cannot flow over the surface but usually evaporate.
Rain :
It is form of precipitation in which the size of drops is more than 0.5 mm and less than
6.25 mm in diameter.
It can produce flow over the ground and can infiltrate and percolate.
Both the duration as well as rate of rainfall are important.
If the rainfall per unit time is greater than the rate of infiltration, the rain water can flow
over the surface of earth.

Forms of Precipitation (cont.)
Glaze :
It is the ice coating formed on drizzle or rain drops as it comes in contact with the cold
surfaces on the ground.
Sleet :
Sleet is frozen rain drops cooled to the ice stage while falling through air at subfreezing
temperatures.
Snow :
Snow is precipitation in the form of ice crystals resulting from sublimation i.e. change of
water vapor directly to ice.

continued
Snowflakes :
A snowflake is made up of a number of ice crystals fused together.
Hail :
Hail is the type of precipitation in the form of balls or lumps of ice over 5 mm
diameter.
They are formed by alternate freezing and melting as they are carried up and
down by highly turbulent air currents.
The impact of these is also more.
A single hailstone weighing over a pound has been observed.

Source:http://kvgktrailblazers.weebly.com/forms-of-precipitation.html
Source:http://www.slideshare.net/mahasabri/precipitation-and-its-forms-hydrology

Factors influencing Precipitation formation
A lifting mechanism to produce cooling of the air.
A mechanism to produce condensation of water vapors and formation of cloud
droplets.
A mechanism to produce growth of cloud droplets to size capable of falling to the
ground against the lifting force of air.

(cont.)
Mechanism of cooling
When air ascends from near the surface to upper levels in the atmosphere
it cools.
This is the only mechanism capable of producing the degree and rate of
cooling needed to account for heavy rainfall.
Cooling lowers the capacity of a given volume of air to hold a certain
amount of water vapor.
As a result super saturation occurs and the excess moisture over saturation
condenses through the cooling process.

(cont.)
Condensation of water vapor
Condensation of water into cloud droplets takes place on hygroscopic nuclei
which are small particles having an affinity for water.
The source of these condensation nuclei are the particles of sea salt or
products of combustion of certain sulfurous and nitrous acid and carbon
dioxide.
There is always sufficient nuclei present in the atmosphere.

(cont.)
Growth of Droplet
Growth of droplets is required if the liquid water present in the cloud
is to reach the ground. The two processes regarded as most effective
for droplet growth are:
i. Coalescence of droplets through collision due to difference in
speed of motion between larger and smaller droplets.
ii.Co-existence of ice crystals and water droplets.
Co-existence effect generally happens in the temperature range
from 100 to 20o F.

(cont.)
If in a layer of clouds there is a mixture of water droplets and ice
crystals, the saturation vapor pressure over ice is lower than that over
water.
This leads to the evaporation of water drops and condensation of
much of this water on ice crystals causing their growth and ultimate
fall through the clouds.
This effect is known as Bergerons effect.
The ice crystals will further grow as they fall and collide with water
droplets.

Classification of Precipitation w.r.t Lifting Mechanism
The precipitation is often classified according to the factor responsible for lifting
of air to higher altitudes. Following are the various types of precipitation based
on this classification.
i. Convectional Precipitation
ii. Orographic Precipitation
iii. Cyclonic Precipitation

Classification of Precipitation Based on the
Lifting Mechanism (cont.)
Convectional Precipitation
The main cause of Convectional precipitation is thermal convection of the
moisture laden air (rising of warmer, lighter air in colder, denser
surroundings).
A major portion of the solar radiation is utilized in heating the earth. As
the earth conducts heat slowly, the heat accumulates at the surface of the
earth and air which comes in its contact is heated up and the lapse rate near
the surface of the earth increases rapidly. With the passage of time as the sun
gets higher and higher the lapse rate increases further and air becomes
unstable.
Vertical currents are then set up which carry heat and the moisture laden
air is picked up from the surface to higher levels. Due to convection, the
moist air in the lower levels of the atmosphere rises up to the condensation
level where clouds develop and with further convection these clouds finally
grow resulting in a thunderstorm.
Orographic Precipitation
In the orographic precipitation, expansion and condensation occurs because
moisture laden air masses are lifted by contact with orographic (mountain)
barriers.
This type of precipitation is most pronounced on the windward side of mountain
range, generally heaviest precipitation occurs where favorable orographic effects
are present.
Orographic precipitation also occurs in the inland areas where mountain ranges
rise above the surrounding areas in the path of the moisture laden air masses.

Cyclonic precipitation
Precipitation in plain regions is generally cyclonic in character.
Cyclonic precipitation results from the lifting of air converging into a low-
pressure area or cyclone.
Cyclonic precipitation can be frontal or non frontal.
Frontal precipitation results from the lifting of warm air on one side over a
colder denser air on the other side.
Warm-front precipitation is formed if the warm air advancing upward over a
cold air mass.
Cold-front precipitation is formed if the warm air is forced upward by an
advancing mass of cold air.

In the Indo-Pak Subcontinent, the cyclonic storms form in the Bay of Bengal
in different months.
During April, May and June most of these storms do not reach Pakistan. But
some of them affect Bangladesh and give very heavy rainfall there.
During the summer monsoon season, the cyclonic storms reach Pakistan
and are fed with moisture from the Arabian sea resulting in heavy rainfall
over the Northern areas of Pakistan.
In September, October and November these storms are very destructive in
Bangladesh. Such storms cause considerable loss of life and property over
the coastal districts.
Cyclonic storms also form in Arabian sea but their number is far less.

Lifting Mechanism (Cont.)

Measurement of precipitation
All forms of precipitation are measured on the basis of the vertical
depth of water that would accumulate on a level surface if the
precipitation remained where it fell.
The amount of precipitation is measured in units of length
(millimeters/inches).

Measurement of precipitation (cont.)
The precipitation is measured by rain gauges/precipitation gauges. There
are two types of rain gauges.
Non-recording rain gauge (standard rain gauge)
Recording rain gauge
The main difference between these rain gauges is that with the help of
recording rain gauges we get the rain recorded automatically with respect
to time, so intensity of rain fall is also known whereas an observer has to
take readings from non recording rain gauge for rain and he has to record
the time also, for calculation of intensity of rain fall.

Non-Recording/Standard gauge
The standard gauge of U.S. Weather Bureau has a collector of 200 mm diameter
and 600 mm height.
Rain passes from a collector into a cylindrical measuring tube inside the
overflow can. The measuring tube has a cross sectional area 1/10th of the
collector, so that 2.5 mm rain fall will fill the tube to 25 mm depth.
A measuring stick is marked in such a way that 1/10th of a cm depth can be
measured.
In this way net rainfall can be measured to the nearest 1 mm. The collector and
tube are removed when snow is expected.
The snow collected in the outer container or overflow can is melted, poured
into the measuring tube and then measured.
This type of rain gauge is one of the most commonly used rain gauges.


Sources of Error
Some water is used to wet the surface of instrument.
The rain recorded may be less than the actual rainfall due to the direction of
the rainfall as affected by wind.
Dents in the collector and tube may also cause error.
Some water is absorbed by the measuring stick.
Losses due to evaporation can also take place.
The volume of stick replaces some water which causes some error.

Recording Rain gauge
Recording rain gauges can be divided into the following types:
Float type
Weighing type
Tipping bucket type

Float Type Rain Gauge
This type of rain gauge also has a receiver and a float chamber along with some
recording mechanism or arrangement.
In this type the rain is led into a float chamber containing a light, hollow float.
The vertical movement of the float as the level of water rises is recorded on a chart with
the help of a pen connected to float.
The chart is wrapped around a rotating clock driven drum.
To provide a continuous record for 24 hours the float chamber has either to be very
large, or some automatic means are provided for emptying the float chamber quickly
when it becomes full, the pen then returning to the bottom of the chart. This is usually
done with some sort of siphoning arrangement.
This arrangement activates when the gauge records a certain fixed amount of rain
(mostly 10 mm of rainfall.).
Snow can not be measured by this type of rain gauge.


Weighing Type Rain Gauge
The weighing type rain gauge consists of a receiver, a bucket, a spring balance and
some recording arrangement.
The weighing type gauge weighs the rain or snow which falls into a bucket which is
set on a lever balance.
The weight of the bucket and content is recorded on a chart by a clock driven drum.
The record is in the form of a graph, one axis of which is in depth units and the other
has time.
The records show the accumulation of precipitation.
Weighing type gauges operate from 1 to 2 months without stopping. But normally
one chart is enough only for 24 hours.
This type of rain gauge has advantage of measuring snow also.
The receiver is removed when snow is expected.

Tipping Bucket Type Rain Gauge
This type of gauge is equipped with a remote recorder located inside the
office which is away from the actual site.
The gauge has two compartments pivoted in such a way that one
compartment receives rain at one time.
A certain amount of rain (usually 0.25 mm fills one compartment and over
balances it so that it tips, emptying into a reservoir and bringing the second
compartment of the bucket into place beneath the funnel of receiver.
As the bucket is tipped by each 0.25 mm of rain it actuates an electrical
circuit, causing a pen to mark on a revolving drum.
This type of gauge is not suitable for measuring snow without heating the
collector.
Plotting is similar to that of other recording rain gauges.

Sources of Error
Dents in the collector.
Moistening of inside-surface of the funnel and the tube.
Rain drops splashing from the collector.
For very intense rain some water is still pouring into the already filled bucket.
Inclination of the gauge may result in catching less or more rain than the
actual amount.
Error in measurement due to wind.

Remedial measures for Error in Precipitation measurement
Removal of error due to dents obviously needs repair of the instrument.
For rain recorded with dents a correction should be applied.
Errors such as moistening of the inside surfaces of the gauge, splashing of
rainwater from the collector and pouring of water into the already filled
bucket during an intense rain can only be corrected by some correction
factor.
Inclined instrument needs to be reinstalled. The correction factor however
can be calculated from the angle of inclination.
For wind protection certain wind shields are designed and used which are
called Splash Guards. Proper setting of gauge above ground level is
necessary.

Example:
A rain gauge recorded 125 mm of precipitation. It was found later that
the gauge was inclined at an angle of 20 degree with the vertical. Find
the actual precipitation.
Solution:
P(measured) = 125 mm
Angle of inclination () = 20o with the vertical
P(actual) = P(measured)/cos() = 125/cos20o = 133 mm
Measurement of precipitation by Radar
This is a modern technique for measurement of rainfall rate.
It can also detect local movement of areas of precipitation.
The electromagnetic energy released and received back by radar is a
measure of rainfall intensity.
The measurement is appreciably affected by trees and buildings.
However extent of rainfall can be estimated with reasonable accuracy.
Use of radar is useful where number of rain gauges installed in an area is
not sufficient.

Rain Gauge Network
The number of rain gauges and their distribution affect the nature of
collected precipitation data.
The larger the number of rain gauges the more representative will be
the data collected. But on the other hand we have to observe other
factors also, like economy of the project, accessibility of certain areas
and topography of the area.
So, one has to look for some optimum solution.
In this regard the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) has
made following recommendations for minimum number of rain
gauges in a catchment:
Rain Gauge Network (cont.)
In comparatively flat regions of temperate, Mediterranean and
Tropical Zones, the ideal is at least one station for 230 345 sq. miles.
However one station for 345 1155 sq. miles is also acceptable
In mountainous regions of Temperate, Mediterranean and Tropical
Zones, the ideal is at least one station for 35 95 sq. miles. However
one station for 95 385 sq. miles is also acceptable.
In arid and polar zones, one station for 575 3860 sq. miles is
acceptable.

Analysis of Precipitation data
Estimation of missing precipitation data
Consistency of precipitation data or Double Mass analysis

Estimation of missing Precipitation data
(cont.)
Some precipitation stations may have short breaks in the records
because of absence of the observer or because of instrumental
failures. It is often necessary to estimate this missing record.
In the procedure used by the U.S. Weather Bureau, the missing
precipitation of a station is estimated from the observations of
precipitation at some other stations as close to and as evenly spaced
around the station with the missing record as possible.
The station whose data is missing is called interpolation station and
gauging stations whose data are used to calculate the missing station
data are called index stations.

(cont.)
There are two methods for estimation of missing data.
Arithmetic mean method

Normal ratio method

(cont.)
Simple Arithmetic Mean method
According to the arithmetic mean method the missing precipitation
Px is given as:
1 i n
Px = Pi
n i 1
Where n is the number of nearby stations, Pi is precipitation at ith

station and Px is missing precipitation.

Estimation of missing precipitation data
In case of three stations 1, 2 and 3,
Px = (P1 + P2 + P3)/3
Naming stations as A, B and C instead of 1, 2 and 3

Px = (Pa + Pb + Pc)/3
Where Pa , Pb and Pc are defined above.

(cont.)
Normal Ratio method
According to the normal ratio method the missing precipitation is given as:
1 in N x
Px = Pi
n i 1 N i
Where Px is the missing precipitation for any storm at the interpolation

station x, Pi is the precipitation for the same period for the same storm at
the ith station of a group of index stations, Nx the normal annual
precipitation value for the x station and Ni the normal annual
precipitation value for ith station.
(cont.)
For example, for the symbols defined above for three index stations in
a catchment area.
1 Nx
Px= [ P1 N x P 2 N x P3]
3 N1 N2 N3

(cont.)
If the normal annual precipitation of the index stations lies within
10% of normal annual precipitation of interpolation station then
we apply arithmetic mean method to determine the missing
precipitation record otherwise the normal ratio method is used for
this purpose.

(cont.)
Consider that record is missing from a station X.
Now let,
N = Normal annual precipitation. (Mean of 30 years of annual precipitation
data)
P = Storm Precipitation.
Let Px be the missing precipitation for station X and Nx , the normal annual
precipitation of this station, Na, Nb and Nc are normal annual precipitations
of nearby three stations, A, B and C respectively while Pa, Pb and Pc are the
storm precipitation of that period for these stations.
Now we have to compare Nx with Na , Nb and Nc separately. If difference of Nx
- Na, Nx - Nb, Nx - Nc is within 10% of Nx then we use simple arithmetic mean
method otherwise the normal ratio method is used.

(cont.)
Example : Find out the missing storm precipitation of station C given in the
following table:
Station A B C D E
Storm precipitation (cm) 9.7 8.3 ---- 11.7 8.0
Normal Annual 100.3 109.5 93.5 125.7 117.5
precipitation (cm)
Solution:
In this example the storm precipitation and normal annual precipitations at
stations A, B, D and E are given and missing precipitation at station C is to be
calculated whose normal annual precipitation is known. We will determine first
that whether arithmetic mean or normal ratio method is to be applied.

(cont.)
10% of Nc = 93.5x10/100 = 9.35
After the addition of 10% of Nc in Nc, we get 93.5 + 9.35=102.85
And by subtracting 10% we get a value of 84.15
So Na, Nb, Nd or Ne values are to be checked for the range 102.85 to 84.15.
If any value of Na, Nb, Nd or Ne lies beyond this range, then normal ratio method
would be used. It is clear from data in table above that Nb, Nd and Ne values are
out of this range so the normal ratio method is applicable here, according to
which:

in
(cont.)
1 Nx
Px = Pi
n i 1 N i
Pc= (1/4 )(93.5 x 9.7/100.3+ 93.5 x 8.3/109.5+ 93.5 x 11.7/125.7+ 93.5

x 8.0/117.5) = 7.8 cm

(cont.)
Example
Precipitation station X was inoperative for part of a month during
which a storm occurred. The storm totals at three surrounding
stations A, B and C were respectively 10.7, 8.9 and 12.2 cm. The
normal annual precipitation amounts at stations X, A, B and C are
respectively 97.8, 112, 93.5 and 119.9 cm. Estimate the storm
precipitation for station X.

(cont.)
Solution
Pa = 10.7 cm Na = 112 cm
Pb = 8.90 cm Nb = 93.5 cm
Pc = 12.2 cm Nc = 119.9 cm
Px = ? Nx = 97.8 cm
10% of Nx = 97.8 x 10/100 = 9.78 cm.
Nx - Na = 97.8 - 112 = -14.2 cm More than + 10% of Nx (no need of calculating Nx

Nb and Nx Nc
Px = (1/3)( 97.8x 10.7/112+ 97.8x 8.90 /93.5 + 97.8x 12.2 /119.9)

Px = 9.5 cm

Consistency of Precipitation Data or Double
Mass Analysis
In using precipitation in the solution of hydrologic problems, it is
necessary to ascertain that time trends in the data are due to
meteorological changes. Quite frequently these trends are the result
of the changes in the gauge location, changes in the intermediate
surroundings such as construction of buildings or growth of trees, etc.
and changes in the observation techniques.
Due to such changes the data might not be consistent. The
consistency of the record is then, required to be determined and the
necessary adjustments to be made. This can be achieved by the
method called the double mass curve technique.

Mass Analysis (cont.)
The double mass curve is obtained by plotting the accumulated precipitation at
the station in question along Y-axis and the average accumulated precipitation of
a number of other nearby stations which are situated under the same
meteorological conditions along X-axis.
If the curve has a constant slope, the record of station X is consistent. However,
if there is any break in the slope of the curve, the record of the station is
inconsistent and has to be adjusted by the formula.
Pa = (Sa / So)x Po
Where Pa = Adjusted precipitation.
Po = Observed precipitation.
Sa = Slope prior to the break in the curve
So = Slope after the break in the curve.
All values after break are to be adjusted.
Example
Check consistency of the data given in table below and adjust it if it is
found to be inconsistent.

Year Annual precipitation at x Mean of annual Year Annual precipitation at x Mean of annual
(mm) precipitation of 20 (mm) precipitation of 20
surrounding stations (mm) surrounding stations
(mm)
1972 188 264 1954 223 360

1971 185 228 1953 173 234
1970 310 386 1952 282 333
1969 295 297 1951 218 236
1968 208 284 1950 246 251
1967 287 350 1949 284 284
1966 183 236 1948 493 361
1965 304 371 1947 320 282
1964 228 234 1946 274 252
1963 216 290 1945 322 274
1962 224 282 1944 437 302
1961 203 246 1943 389 350
1960 284 264 1942 305 228
1959 295 332 1941 320 312
1958 206 231 1940 328 284
1957 269 234 1939 308 315
1956 241 231 1938 302 280
1955 284 312 By. Engr.Rahat Ullah
1937 414 343 70
Solution
A double mass curve is plotted by taking cumulative of average
precipitation of surrounding stations along x-axis and accumulative
precipitation of station X along y-axis for which consistency of data is
being investigated.
The double mass curve is shown in Figure

Year Cummulative Annual precipitation Cummulative precipitation of 20 surrounding Corrected Precipitation Remarks
at x (mm) stations (mm)
1972 188 264 188
1971 373 492 185
1970 683 878 310
1969 978 1175 295
1968 1186 1459 208
1967 1473 1809 287
1966 1656 2045 183
1965 1960 2416 304
1964 2188 2650 228
No correction
1963 2404 2940 216
1962 2628 3222 224
1961 2831 3468 203
1960 3115 3732 284
1959 3410 4064 295
1958 3616 4295 206
1957 3885 4529 269
1956 4126 4760 241
1955 4410 5072 284
1954 4633 5432 223
1953 4806 5666 173
1952 5088 5999 282
1951 5306 6235 218
1950 5552 6486 246
1949 5836 6770 198.8
Precipitation of Station 'X' x 0.7

1948 6329 7131 345
1947 6649 7413 224
1946 6923 7665 192
1945 7245 7939 225.4
1944 7682 8241 306
1943 8071 8591 272.3
1942 8376 8819 213.5
1941 8696 9131 224
1940 9024 9415 229.6
1939 9332 9730 215.6
1938 9634 10010 211.4
1937 10048 10353 290
Where
Pa = (Sa / So)x Po
Pa = Adjusted precipitation.
Po = Observed precipitation.
Sa = Slope prior to the break in the curve
So = Slope after the break in the curve.

The correction for slope is applied to readings beyond break in slope.
The calculations are shown in table.
Slope of 1st line = Sa = 0.854
Slope of deviating line = So = 1.176
Correction to values (multiplying factor) = 0.854/1.176 = 0.70
So up to 1950 no correction is required. Before 1950 all readings are
multiplied by slopes ratio of 0.7 to get corrected precipitation.
Note that data in latter interval (1973-1950) is considered more
authentic so kept in initial reach of the graph.

Estimation of Average Precipitation over a
Basin
To find out runoff from a catchment and most of other hydrologic analyses,
it is important to know the average precipitation of a certain part of
catchment or for the whole of the catchment area.
To find out average precipitation of watershed, records of precipitation
from different rain gauge stations is used.
There are many factors which affect the reliability of average precipitation
of watershed determined by using the data from individual stations in the
watershed.
For example : the total number of rain gauges and their distribution in the
catchment (larger the number of rain gauges, the reliable will be the
calculated average precipitation), the size and shape of area of catchment,
distribution of rainfall over the area and topography of the area and the
method used for calculating average precipitation.

Basin (cont.)
There are three methods to find average precipitation over a basin.
Accuracy of estimated average precipitation will depend upon the
choice of an appropriate method. These methods are described
below:
Arithmetic Mean Method
Thiessens Polygon Method
Isohyetal Method.

Basin (cont.)
Arithmetic Mean Method
In this method the average precipitation over an area is the arithmetic average of the gauge precipitation
values. We take data for only those stations which are within the boundary. This is the simplest method but
is applicable only for flat areas and not for hilly areas i.e. this method is used when:
Basin area is flat.
All stations are uniformly distributed (within practical limits) over the area.
The rainfall is also nearly uniformly distributed over the area.
According to this method
1 n
P (average) = Pi
n i 1
Or Pav = [P1+P2+P3++Pn]/n
Where Pi is precipitation at station i and there are n number of gauges installed in the catchment area
from where the data has been collected.

Basin (cont.)
Example
Six rain gauges were installed in a relatively flat area and storm
precipitation from these gauges was recorded as 3.7, 4.9, 6.8, 11.4,
7.6 and 12.7 cm respectively from gauges 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. Find
average precipitation over the catchment.
Solution
As the area is relatively flat so we apply the arithmetic mean method.
According to arithmetic mean method.
P(average) = (3.7 + 4.9 + 6.8 + 11.4 + 7.6 + 12.7)/6 = 7.85 cm.

Basin (cont.)
Thiessen Polygon Method
The fundamental principle followed in this method consists of weighing the values at
each station by a suitable proportion of the basin area. In this method, a special
weighing factor is considered.
The following steps are used to determine average precipitation by Thiessen Polygon
Method.
1. Draw the given area according to a certain scale and locate the stations where
measuring devices are installed.
2. Join all the stations to get a network of non-intersecting system of triangles.
3. Draw perpendicular bisectors of all the lines joining the stations and get a suitable
network of polygons, each enclosing one station. It is assumed that precipitation over
the area enclosed by the polygon is uniform.
4. Measure area of the each polygon.
5. Calculate the average precipitation. For the whole basin by the formula.

Basin (cont.)
P (average) = (P1 A1 + P2 A2 + ...........+ Pn An)/A

Where,
P1 = Precipitation. at station enclosed by polygon of area A1
P2 = Precipitation. at station enclosed by polygon of area A2
and so on
Pn = Precipitation. at station enclosed by polygon of area An
And A represents the total area of the catchment.

Basin (cont.)
Example : Following is shown map of a catchment having 6 rainfall recording
stations. Find the Average Precipitation over the whole catchment.

Basin (cont.)
The precipitation and polygon area are given below.
Precipitation (mm) Polygon Area

Station (km)
Daggar 48 5,068.76
Besham 33 4,349.17
Shinkiari 25 1,399.25
Phulra 32 1,693.80
Tarbela 56 2,196.33
Oghi 30 2,234.29

Basin (cont.)
Solution : The calculations are done in tabular form
Station Precipitation P Polygon Area A P x A (x106 m)
(mm) (km)
Daggar 48 5,068.76 243.30
Besham 33 4,349.17 143.52
Shinkiar 25 1,399.25 34.98
i
Phulra 32 1,693.80 54.20
Tarbela 56 2,196.33 122.99
Oghi 30 2,234.29 67.03
Total 16,941.60 666.02
in
Mean Precipitation =
PiAi
i 1 = 666.02x106x10/16941.60x106
i n
Ai
i 1
Mean Precipitation = 39.3 mm

Basin (cont.)
Example : From the data given in Table below, which was obtained from Thiessen
Polygon map of a catchment, find out the average precipitation of the catchment.
Sr No Gauge Area of Thiessen Sr No Gauge Area of Thiessen

precipitation Polygon enclosing the precipitation (cm) Polygon enclosing the
(cm) station station
(sq. km) (sq. km)
1 10.2 416 4 9.4 520
2 8.1 260 5 15.2 390
3 12.7 650 6 7.6 325

Basin (cont.)
Solution : According to Thiessen Polygon Method
The calculations are shown in tabular form in Table.
Gauge precipitation Area of Thiessen Polygon Volume = Pi x Ai (x104 m)
(cm) enclosing
the station (sq. km)
(1) = Pi (2) = Ai (3) = (1)x(2)
10.2 416 4243.20

8.1 260 2106.00
12.7 650 8255.00
9.4 520 4888.00
15.2 390 5928.00
7.6 325 2470.00
Total 2561 27890.20
P (average) = 27890.20 2561=10.9 cm

Basin (cont.)
Example : There are 10 observation stations, 7 being inside and 3 in neighborhood of a
catchment. Thiessen Polygons were drawn for a storm data from these observation
stations and the data given in Table below was obtained. Find out the average
precipitation of the catchment.
Sr No Gauge precipitation (cm) Area of Thiessen Polygon enclosing
the station (sq. km)
1 5 100
2 3 160
3 4 200
4 3.5 215
5 4.7 250
6 6 175
7 4 100

Basin (cont.)
Solution : According to Thiessen Polygon Method
Gauge precipitation Area of Thiessen Polygon enclosing the Volume = PixAi
(cm) station (sq. km) (x104 m)
(1) = Pi (2) = Ai (3) = (1)x(2)
5 100 500
3 160 480
4 200 800
3.5 215 752.50
4.7 250 1175
6 175 1050
4 100 400
Total 1200 5157.50
P (average) = 5157.5 1200 = 4.3 cm

Basin (cont.)
Isohyetal Method
The most accurate method of averaging precipitation over an area is the isohyetal
method.
For estimation of average precipitation of the catchment by isohyetal method the
following steps are used:
1. Draw the map of the area according to a certain scale.

2. Locate the points on map where precipitation measuring gauges are installed.
3. Write the amount of precipitation for stations.
4. Draw isohyets (Lines joining points of equal precipitation).
5. Measure area enclosed between every two isohyets or the area enclosed by an
isohyet and boundary of the catchment.

Basin (cont.)
Find average precipitation by the formula.
Where,
P1= Mean precipitation of two isohyets 1 and 2
A1= Area between these two isohyets.
P2 = Mean precipitation of two isohyets 2 and 3
A2 = the area b/w these two isohyets.
and, so on
Pn = Mean precipitation of isohyets n-1 and n
An = the area between these two isohyets.
It may be noted that the last and first areas mentioned above may be between an isohyet and boundary of
the catchment. In this case the precipitation at the boundary line is required which may be extrapolated or
interpolated.

Basin (cont.)
Example: From the data given in table below, which was obtained from isohyetal map of a
catchment, find out the average precipitation of the catchment.
Isohyet Isohyetal precipitation (cm) Area enclosed between two
No. isohyets. (sq km)
1 2.5 390
2 5.0 520
3 7.5 650
4 10.0 390
5 10.0 390
6 7.5 442
7 5.0 546
8 2.5
Note that the isohyet No. 1 and 8 were out of the boundary of the catchment. The area between
isohyet No. 2 and the boundary was estimated to be 312 sq. km and that of between isohyet No. 7 and
boundary was 494 sq. km. Precipitation on these boundaries was interpolated as 3.0 and 3.1 cm,
respectively.

Basin (cont.)
Solution : In isohyetal method we have to calculate the average precipitation of every two consecutive isohyets. This is
given in Table below.
Isohyet Isohyetal Average of Area enclosed Volume
No. precipitation (cm) precipitation of two between two isohyets (x104 m)
consecutive isohyets (sq km)
(cm)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) = (3) x (4)
Boundary 3 4 (for isohyet and 312 (for isohyet and 1248.00
boundary) boundary)
2 5.0 6.25 520 3250.00
3 7.5 8.75 650 5687.50
4 10.0 10.0 390 3900.00
5 10.0 8.75 390 3412.50
6 7.5 6.25 442 2762.50
7 5.0 4.05(for isohyet and 494 (for isohyet and 2000.70
boundary) boundary)
Boundary 3.1
3198 22260.2
= 22260.2/3198 = 6.96 cm
Basin (cont.)
Example : In a catchment of area 1,000 sq km, there are 8 rain gauges, 5 inside
the area and 3 outside, in its surroundings. Isohyets were drawn from the data of
these rain gauges for a storm. From the isohyetal map the following information
was obtained: areas between 1 and 2 cm isohyets, 2 and 3 cm, 3 and 4 cm and 4
and 5 cm isohyets was 105, 230, 150 and 220 sq. km, respectively. The area
between one end boundary which has 0.75 cm rainfall and 1 cm isohyet was 120
sq. km and the other end boundary which has precipitation of 5.5 cm and isohyet
of 5 cm was 175 sq. km. Find average precipitation.

Basin (cont.)
Solution
Isohyet No Isohyetal Average of precipitation of Area enclosed between Volume
precipitation (cm) two consecutive isohyets (cm) two isohyets (x104 m)
(sq km)
0.875 (for isohyet and 120 (for isohyet and

Boundary 0.75 105.00
boundary) boundary)
1 1 1.5 105 157.50
2 2 2.5 230 575.00
3 3 3.5 150 525.00
4 4 4.5 220 990.00
5.25 (for isohyet and
5 5 175 918.75
boundary)
Boundary 5.5
1000.00 3271.25

= 3271.25/1000 = 3.27 cm
Basin (cont.)
Example : From the isohyetal map shown in Fig. below find out average
precipitation.

Basin (cont.)
Solution : The isohyets are drawn on the topographic map by
interpolating rainfall depths at given stations. Once isohyets are drawn, the
area enclosed between consecutive isohyets is determined either by
planimeter or other suitable more precise method.
Isohyte value (mm) Av. Isohyte Value Area Between Volume (x106 m)
(mm) Consecutive Isohytes
(km)
Boundary and 25 25.0 310.53 7.76

25 and 30 27.5 2220.71 61.07
30 and 35 32.5 2968.38 96.47
35 and 40 37.5 2231.86 83.69
40 and 45 42.5 2303.52 97.90
45 and 50 47.5 2731.90 129.77
50 and 55 52.5 2689.70 141.21
55 and Boundary 55 1484.99 81.67
Total 16,941.60 699.54
Mean Precipitation Depth = Volume/Area

= 699.54x106x10/16941.60x106 = 41.29 mm
References cited
Hydrology for Engineers by Linsely, Kohler, Paulhus
Applied Hydrology by Dr. Abdur Razzaq Ghumman
Hydrology Principles, analysis, design by HM Raghunath
Special thanks to Engr. Asad Ali, Lecturer CECOS University.

Chapter No. 01 and 02 Introduction To Hydrology. Precipitation

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Chapter No. 01 and 02 Introduction To Hydrology. Precipitation

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Chapter 01 and 02

1) introduction to hydrology and the hydrological cycle.

hydrology and water management fall 2017

By. Engr.Rahat Ullah 1

Hydrology is an essential field of science since everything from tiny organisms to

By. Engr.Rahat Ullah 3

By. Engr.Rahat Ullah 4

By. Engr.Rahat Ullah 5

By. Engr.Rahat Ullah 6

By. Engr.Rahat Ullah 7

By. Engr.Rahat Ullah 8

By. Engr.Rahat Ullah 10

By. Engr.Rahat Ullah 11

By. Engr.Rahat Ullah 14

By. Engr.Rahat Ullah 15

By. Engr.Rahat Ullah 17

Precipitation is one of the most important events of hydrology.

By. Engr.Rahat Ullah 18

By. Engr.Rahat Ullah 19

By. Engr.Rahat Ullah 20

By. Engr.Rahat Ullah 21

By. Engr.Rahat Ullah 23

By. Engr.Rahat Ullah 24

By. Engr.Rahat Ullah 25

By. Engr.Rahat Ullah 26

By. Engr.Rahat Ullah 27

By. Engr.Rahat Ullah 28

By. Engr.Rahat Ullah 29

By. Engr.Rahat Ullah 31

By. Engr.Rahat Ullah 32

By. Engr.Rahat Ullah 33

By. Engr.Rahat Ullah 34

By. Engr.Rahat Ullah 35

Non-recording rain gauge (standard rain gauge)

Recording rain gauge

By. Engr.Rahat Ullah 36

By. Engr.Rahat Ullah 37

By. Engr.Rahat Ullah 38

By. Engr.Rahat Ullah 39

Recording rain gauges can be divided into the following types:

Tipping bucket type

By. Engr.Rahat Ullah 40

By. Engr.Rahat Ullah 41

By. Engr.Rahat Ullah 42

By. Engr.Rahat Ullah 44

By. Engr.Rahat Ullah 46

By. Engr.Rahat Ullah 47

By. Engr.Rahat Ullah 48

By. Engr.Rahat Ullah 50

By. Engr.Rahat Ullah 52

Estimation of missing precipitation data

Consistency of precipitation data or Double Mass analysis

By. Engr.Rahat Ullah 53

By. Engr.Rahat Ullah 54

Arithmetic mean method

By. Engr.Rahat Ullah 55

Where n is the number of nearby stations, Pi is precipitation at ith

By. Engr.Rahat Ullah 56

Naming stations as A, B and C instead of 1, 2 and 3

Where Pa , Pb and Pc are defined above.

By. Engr.Rahat Ullah 57

Where Px is the missing precipitation for any storm at the interpolation

By. Engr.Rahat Ullah 59