Bridge Engineering

Introduction
S.S.Bapat
Civil Engineering Department
Walchand College of Engineering, Sangli
Introduction to Bridges
What is a bridge?

A bridge is a structure that spans a divide such as:

A stream/river/ravine*/valley**
Railroad track/roadway/waterway
The traffic that uses a bridge
may include:
Pedestrian or cycle traffic
Vehicular or rail traffic
Water/gas pipes
A combination of all the above
*A deep narrow steep-sided valley (especially one formed by running water)
**A long depression in the surface of the land that usually contains a river
Function of A Bridge
A bridge has to carry a service (which
may be highway or railway traffic, a
footpath, public utilities, etc.) over an
obstacle (which may be another road or
railway, a river, a valley, etc.) and to
transfer the loads from the service to the
foundations at ground level.
 History of Bridge Development

100 B.C. Romans

2,104 years ago
700 A.D. Asia
Clapper Bridge
1,304 years
Tree trunk ago
Stone

Roman Arch Bridge

Arch design
evenly distributes Great Stone Bridge in China
stresses
Natural concrete Low bridge
made from mud Shallow arch
and straw Allows boats
and water to pass
through
 History of Bridge Development
1900

Truss Bridges
Mechanics of 2000
Design
Wood

1920 Suspension Bridges

Use of steel in
suspending cables Prestressed
Concrete
Steel
 Classification of Bridges
According to functions : aqueduct, viaduct, highway,
pedestrian etc.
According to materials of construction : reinforced concrete,
prestressed concrete, steel, composite, timber etc.
According to form of superstructure : slab, beam, truss, arch,
suspension, cable-stayed etc.
According to interspan relation : simple, continuous,
cantilever.
According to the position of the bridge floor relative to the
superstructure : deck, through, half-through etc.
According to method of construction : pin-connected,
riveted, welded etc.
 Classification of Bridges
According to road level relative to highest flood
level : high-level, submersible etc.
According to method of clearance for navigation :
movable-bascule, movable-swing, transporter
According to span : short, medium, long, right,
skew, curved.
According to degree of redundancy : determinate,
indeterminate
According to type of service and duration of use :
permanent, temporary bridge, military
General Span Types
Materials for Construction
A Typical Single Span Bridge
Basic Components of a Bridge
Bridges which Carry Loads
Mainly in Flexure
The majority of bridges are of this type. The
loads are transferred to the bearings and piers
and hence to the ground by slabs or beams
acting in flexure, i.e. the bridges obtain their
load-carrying resistance from the ability of the
slabs and beams to resist bending moments
and shear forces.
Only for very short spans, is it possible to
adopt a slab without any form of beam. This
type of bridge will thus be referred to generally
as a girder bridge.
Typical Beam/Girder Bridge
 Bridges which Carry their Loads
Mainly as Axial Forces
This type can be further subdivided into those bridges in
which the primary axial forces are compressive (arches)
and those in which these forces are tensile (suspension
bridges and cable-stayed bridges).
It must not be thought that flexure is immaterial in such
structures. In most suspension bridges, flexure of the
stiffening girder is not a primary loading. However, in
cable stayed bridges (particularly if the stays are widely
spaced) flexure of the girder is a primary loading.
Bridges which Carry their Loads
Mainly as Axial Forces
Bridges which Carry their Loads
Mainly as Axial Forces
Basic Types of Bridges
Girder/Beam Bridge
Truss Bridge
Rigid Frame Bridge
Arch Bridge
Cable Stayed Bridge
Suspension Bridge
Floating Bridges
 Types of Bridges
Basic Types:
Truss Bridge
Beam Bridge
Arch Bridge
Suspension Bridge
Floating
Floating Bridge

Truss Beam Arch

Suspension

The type of bridge used depends on the obstacle. The main

feature that controls the bridge type is the size of the obstacle.
Girder/Beam Bridge

The most common and basic type

Typical spans : 10m to 200m
 Types of Bridges

Beam Bridge

Consists of a horizontal beam supported at each end by piers.

The weight of the beam pushes straight down on the piers. The
farther apart its piers, the weaker the beam becomes. This is
why beam bridges rarely span more than 250 feet.
 Types of Bridges

Beam Bridge

Forces
When something pushes down on the beam, the beam
bends. Its top edge is pushed together, and its bottom
edge is pulled apart.
Truss Bridge

Truss is a simple skeletal structure.

Typical span lengths are 40m to 500m.
 Truss Bridge

All beams in a truss bridge are straight. Trusses are

comprised of many small beams that together can support
a large amount of weight and span great distances.
Forces in a Truss Bridge

In design theory, the individual members of a simple truss are

only subject to tension and compression and not bending
forces. For most part, all the beams in a truss bridge are
straight.
Arch Bridges
Arches used a curved structure
which provides a high
resistance to bending forces.
Both ends are fixed in the
horizontal direction (no
horizontal movement allowed
in the bearings).
Arches can only be used
Hinge-less Arch where ground is solid and
stable.
Hingeless arch is very stiff and
suffers less deflection.
Two-hinged arch uses hinged
bearings which allow rotation
and most commonly used for
steel arches and very
Two hinged Arch economical design.
Arch Bridges
The three-hinged arch
adds an additional hinge at
the top and suffers very
little movement in either
foundation, but
experiences more
Three-hinged Arch
deflection. Rarely used.
The tied arch allows
construction even if the
ground is not solid enough
to deal with horizontal
forces.
Tied Arch
 Types of Bridges

Arch Bridges

The arch has great natural strength. Thousands of years ago,

Romans built arches out of stone. Today, most arch bridges
are made of steel or concrete, and they can span up to 250
m.
Forces in an Arch
Arches are well
suited to the use of
stone because they
are subject to
compression.
Many ancient and
well-known
examples of stone
arches still stand
today.
Arch Bridge
 Cable Stayed

A typical cable-stayed bridge is a continuous deck with

one or more towers erected above piers in the middle
of the span.
Cables stretch down diagonally from the towers and
support the deck. Typical spans 110m to 480m.
Cable Stay Towers

Cable stayed bridges may be classified by the

number of spans, number and type of towers,
deck type, number and arrangement of cables.
Cable Stay Arrangements
Cable Stayed Bridges
Cable Stayed Bridges
Cable Stayed Bridges
a brief history
it was first applied in the 1800s in
England (incorporated with suspension
bridges), many of which had failed due
to insufficient resistance to wind
pressure (but also failure of the designer,
and failure to understand the mechanics
of such a bridge.)
continued
But in the 1900s, several factors
contributed to successful
implementations:
Better methods of structural analysis of
statically indeterminate structures (via
computers)
Development of steel decks
High strength steel, new methods of
fabrication and erection
components
Deck, Tower are made of reinforced concrete.

A box girder supports the deck so as to reduce buckling of

the deck from high compressions, twisting or torsion,
and distribute among the stays non-uniform loads.
Cables are made of high-strength steel, usually
encased in a plastic or steel covering that is filled
with grout , a fine grained form of concrete, for
protection against corrosion.
cable connections
classifications

radial : cables connect evenly throughout the deck, but all

converge on the top of the pier

harp : cables are parallel, and evenly spaced along the

deck and the pier

fan : a combination of radial and harp types

star-shaped : cables are connected to two opposite

points on the pier
Gi-Lu bridge, Taiwan
 pros
construction method is simple
(cantilever method)
appropriate for our span, although
they are typically built for larger
spans
however, elements of the cable-
stayed bridge may be employed
simple to design (as opposed to
the suspension bridge)
cons
may require building pier, or at least
a tower on either side of the site
more susceptible to damage by wind
forces
similarly, it is weak in the sense of
torsion and twisting
although cheaper than suspension
bridges, can be more expensive for
short spans (as opposed to truss
bridges)
 Suspension Bridge

A typical suspension bridge is a continuous deck with one or

more towers erected above piers in the middle of span. The
deck maybe of truss or box girder.
Cables pass over the saddle which allows free sliding.
At both ends large anchors are placed to hold the ends of the
cables.
Forces in Suspension Bridge
 Types of Bridges
Suspension Bridges
This kind of bridges can span 600 to 2000 m -- more than any
other type of bridge! Most suspension bridges have a truss
system beneath the roadway to resist bending and twisting.
 Types of Bridges

Floating Bridge

Pontoon bridges are supported by floating pontoons

with sufficient buoyancy to support the bridge and
dynamic loads.
While pontoon bridges are usually temporary
structures, some are used for long periods of time.
Permanent floating bridges are useful for traversing
features lacking strong bedrock for traditional piers.
Such bridges can require a section that is elevated,
or can be raised or removed, to allow ships to pass.
 Floating
Bridges

Retractable!

But high maintenance!

Types of Bridge

Beam Bridges
Box Girder Bridges
Arch Bridges
Truss Bridges
Suspension Bridges
Cable Stayed Bridges
Beam Bridges
Beam Bridges

A beam bridge is the simplest kind

of bridge
The farther apart its supports, the
weaker a beam bridge becomes
+ Cheap and cheerful
+ Easy to manufacture
Not very beautiful
Beam needs careful design
Box Girder Bridges
Box Girder Sections
Box Girder Bridges

Similar to beam bridges

With well designed girders will be
stronger than a simple beam bridge
+ Cheap and cheerful

+ Easy to manufacture

Not very beautiful

Girder needs careful design

Supporting Beams

To improve the performance of a

simple beam bridge the beam has to
be supported
There are three basic ways to do
this:
>Arches
>Trusses
>Cables
Arch Bridges
 Arch Bridges

Arch bridges are one of the oldest types of

bridge and have great natural strength

Instead of pushing straight down, the weight of

an arch bridge is carried outward along the
curve of the arch to the supports at each end

These supports (called abutments) carry the

load and keep the ends of the bridge from
spreading out
Arch Bridges
Over

Under
Arch Bridges

+ Very strong if well designed

+ Can be very beautiful

Tend to be very heavy

Need very strong abutments
Truss Bridges
 Truss Bridges

Are mostly empty space, but very effective

Solid components (beams, arches etc.) are replaced by
triangulated assemblies of thin (usually metal) members
 Truss Bridges

+ Very good strength to weight

performance
+ Possibility of lots of repeated parts
reduces manufacturing costs
+ Can be incorporated into almost any
design
+ Can be very beautiful
Lots of parts to be manufactured
Suspension Bridges
 Suspension Bridges

Apart from the towers, all the highly stressed parts

of a suspension bridge are in tension

A suspension bridge suspends the roadway from

huge main cables, which extend from one end of
the bridge to the other

These cables rest on top of towers and are

secured at each end by anchorages
 Suspension Bridges

+ Aesthetic, light and strong

+ Can span distances far longer than
any other kind of bridge

The most expensive bridges to build

Susceptible to wobble if badly
designed
Suspension Bridge Wobble
Video on Tacoma Bridge Failure
Cable Stayed Bridges
 Cable Stayed Bridges

In suspension bridges, the cables ride freely

across the towers, transmitting the load to
the anchorages at either end

In cable-stayed bridges, the cables are

attached to the towers, which alone bear
the load
Cable Stayed Bridges

Parallel attachment pattern

Radial attachment pattern

 Cable Stayed Bridges

+ Undeniably beautiful
Compared to suspension bridges
+ Require less cable

+ Are easier and faster to build

Need stronger towers

Info to be collected for design
 Site Information
Survey - existing ground level and site details.
Soil investigation - at least one bore-hole for each support
position to determine safe bearing pressure, aggressive
conditions and predict settlement.
Mining - details of old working and future seams.
River Board navigation requirements, maximum flood
levels and scour problems around foundations.
Railways frequency of trains, available track possession,
minimum headroom, position of supports and piling
techniques.
Statutory Undertakers diversion of existing services,
provision for future services in the deck.
 Site Information
Planning Authorities normally concerned with aesthetic
appeal and the effect on local amenities.
Road Geometry details of horizontal and vertical
alignment together with the road cross-section.
Design Standards design live loading, visibility distances,
headroom standards and horizontal clearances.
Time the time for design and the phasing of construction
in relation to other work.
Atmospheric Conditions an aggressive environment may
involve high maintenance costs for steel construction and
special precautions in the detailed specification.
Conceptual Considerations for
bridge type selection
Initial conceptual choice should take account of:
Clearance requirements and the avoidance of
impact damage
type & magnitude of loading
topography and geology of the site
possible erection methods
local skills and materials
future inspection and maintenance
aesthetic and environmental aspects
Factors Affecting Conceptual
Choice
The functional considerations that have
greatest influence on conceptual choice are:

The clearance requirements (both vertically

and horizontally) and avoidance of impact
The type and magnitude of the loading to be
carried
The topography and geology of the site
Clearance Requirements
All bridges must be designed to ensure, as far as is
possible, that they are not struck by vehicles, vessels or
trains which may pass below them. This requirement is
normally met by specifying minimum clearances.
It must be remembered that designed values must take
into account deflections due to any loading that may
occur on the bridge structure.
Clearance requirements may thus determine the span of
a bridge and also have a significant bearing on the
construction depth. Whilst the requirements will not
normally determine precisely the type of bridge, it may
well eliminate some possibilities.
Clearance Requirements
Typically, for example, a bridge over a major highway
would be expected to have a minimum vertical
clearance of about 5.3 meters; even this may not
protect it from accidental impact

In addition, pier positions must be such that the

likelihood of impact from errant vehicles is
minimised, both to protect the pier and the vehicle
itself. This requirement is usually achieved by setting
the pier back at a reasonable distance from the edge
of the carriageway.
 Clearance Requirements
Navigation authorities specify clearances over rivers,
to allow not only for the mast height and width of
vessels below the bridge, but also for particular
requirements for piers in the waterway, to avoid
excessive flow velocity and scour of river banks.
In considering vertical clearance, a designer must
bear in mind the problems of attaining them. The
approach gradient for a highway bridge should not
normally exceed about 4% and a railway bridge much
less.
BACK
Loading
The type and magnitude of loading has a
significant bearing on the form of bridge.
Highway loading by its nature is impossible to
determine exactly, either in disposition or in
magnitude.
A highway bridge requires a deck on which the
traffic can run and (unless the span is so short
that a simple slab is adequate to span between
abutments) the deck must be strong enough to
distribute the loading to the main girders.
 Loading
Every country has its own specification for the magnitude of
loading on highway and railway bridges. For highway bridges
most national codes have in common a uniform loading
together with a line load (or series of point loads) to represent
isolated heavy axles. In many codes, the uniform load is of
decreasing intensity as the length of bridge increases, to allow
for the reduced probability of a concentration of heavy lorries.

Furthermore, there are rules for multiple lane loadings,

frequently assuming that not more than two lanes are fully
loaded at any one time, again based on a probabilistic
approach. Many authorities also specify checks for a single
very heavy abnormal vehicle. In many codes, the effect of
impact (dynamic magnification) of highway loads is taken into
account by the static load specification.
Loading
Additionally, forces arising from braking or acceleration of
vehicles, centrifugal effects on curved bridges,
temperature effects and wind have to be taken into
account where relevant.
Whilst the details of applied loads are appropriate to the
detailed design, rather than the conceptual design of a
bridge, certain aspects enter into the concept. For
example, where heavy abnormal vehicles are specified,
the bridge will require good transverse load distribution.

BACK
 Topography & Geology of Bridge
Site
The overall topography of the site may determine the line of the road
or railway. This may mean that bridges may have to cross other
roads, railways or rivers at a substantial angle, resulting in skew
spans. Generally, the bridge site is fixed by the geometry of the
obstacle and local terrain.
The road may be on a curve; whilst it is possible to curve a bridge to
follow this, it is frequently expensive and structurally inefficient, and
the use of torsionally stiff girders even for short spans may be
necessary. If the curve is slight, it may be preferable to construct the
bridge as a series of straight spans.
Poor foundation conditions will favour fewer foundations and hence
longer spans. A balance has to be found between the cost of
foundations and superstructure to minimise the total cost.

BACK
Other Factors
Method of Erection
The designer must consider at the design stage the
method by which a bridge will be erected. such
consideration should be made even at the time of
conceptual choice, since it can happen that the
superficially most attractive design is impossible to erect
in a particular location.
For example, a design that relies on being erected in
large pieces (such as a major box girder), may be ruled
out because of the impossibility of transporting such
pieces to a remote site with inadequate access roads.

BACK
Other Factors
Local Constructional Skills and Materials
A bridge should be suited to local technology. It is not sensible
to specify a sophisticated design if all the material and labour
has to be imported.

Future Inspection and Maintenance

Lack of attention to future maintenance both at the conceptual
design and the detailed design stages would results in
deteriorations of the structure because of difficulty in inspection
and maintenance. It is particularly important that in locations
where access is difficult, details which deteriorate should be
avoided as far as possible. This will be considered further in
various respects, for example whether a bridge should be a
series of simple spans or should be continuous.
BACK
Other Factors
Aesthetic and Environmental Aspects
The appearance of bridges has in recent years become a
matter of considerable importance. Frequently, a scheme takes
a road or railway through an area of great natural beauty and it
is important that any structures are in keeping with these
surroundings and do not adversely affect them.
For example, it is commonly accepted that a bridge is more
aesthetically pleasing with an odd number of spans than an
even number. In addition, a degree of deepening at piers can
add to the attraction.
The 3-span structures are more attractive than the two span
ones. Hence, the conceptual choice should probably tend
towards a 3-span solution.
Estimated Bridge Costs
Detailed Design Considerations
The design development needs to make the
correct choices for:
deck structure
layout i.e. spans and structural arrangements
continuous or simple construction
proportions, i.e. span/depth ratios
reducing fabrication labour to a minimum
design for ease of construction
Basic Components of a Bridge
The two basic parts are:
Substructure - includes the piers, the abutments and the
foundations.
Superstructure - consists of the deck structure itself,
which support the direct loads due to traffic and all the
other permanent and variable leads to which the structure
is subjected.
The connection between the substructure and the
superstructure is usually made through bearings.
However, rigid connections between the piers (and
sometimes the abutments) may be adopted, particularly
in frame bridges with tall (flexible) piers.
Substructure : Piers
Piers are of two basic types:

Column piers - Concrete column piers may have a solid

cross-section, or a box section may be the shape chosen
for the cross-section for structural and aesthetic reasons.

Wall piers - generally less economical and less pleasing

from an aesthetic point of view. They are very often
adopted in cases where particular conditions exist, e.g.
piers in rivers with significant hydrodynamic actions or in
bridges with tall piers where box sections are adopted.
Basic Types of Bridge Piers
Substructure : Abutments
The abutments establish the connection between
the bridge superstructure and the embankments.
They are designed to support the loads due to
the superstructure which are transmitted through
the bearings and to the pressures of the soil
contained by the abutment.

The abutments must include expansion joints, to

accommodate the displacements of the deck, i.e.
the longitudinal shortening and expansion
movements of the deck due to temperature.
Basic Types of Abutments
Two basic types of abutments may be considered:
Wall (counterfort) abutments and Open abutments.
Counterfort wall abutments are adopted only when the
topographic conditions and the shapes of the backfill are
such that an open abutment cannot be used. They are
generally adopted when the required height of the front wall
is above 5.0 to 8.0m. If the depth is below this order of
magnitude, counterfort walls may not be necessary and a
simple wall cantilevering from the foundation may be
adopted.
The connection between the abutments and the backfill may
include an approach slab which ensures a smooth surface
of the pavement even after settlement of the adjacent
backfill.
Basic Types of Bridge
Abutments Wall & Counterfort

Wall Abutment Counterfort

Types of Wall Abutments
Basic Types of Bridge
Abutments Open Type
Superstructure Structural
Systems
The longitudinal system of a bridge may be one
of the following types: beam, frame, arch, cable
stayed or suspension.
There are three main types of bridge transverse
systems, slab, beam-slab or box girder.
Bridge superstructures may use the beam and
plate girder, truss girder or box girder structural
systems.
Deck systems use a reinforced concrete slab,
with or without cross-girders, or a partially
prestressed concrete slab, or an orthotropic steel
plate.
Bridge Longitudinal Structural
Systems
Bridge Deck
The principal function of a bridge deck is to
provide support to local vertical loads (from
highway traffic, railway or pedestrians) and
transmit these loads to the primary
superstructure of the bridge.
As a result of its function, the deck will be
continuous along the bridge span and (apart
from some railway bridges) continuous across
the span. As a result of this continuity, it will act
as a plate (isotropic or orthotropic depending
on construction) to support local patch loads.