The Skeleton

Irwan
 Bone
Content: Types of bones
Bone structure
Functions of bones
Axial skeleton
Skull
Vertebral column
Thoracic cage
Appendicular skeleton
Shoulder girdle and upper limb
Pelvic girdle and lower limb
 Bone
Learning outcomes
After studying this section you should be able to:
list five types of bones and give an example of each
outline the general structure of a long bone
describe the structure of compact and cancellous bone
tissue
state the functions of bones.
Bone is a strong and durable type of connective tissue.
It consists of:
water (25%)
organic constituents including osteoid (the
carboncontaining part of the matrix) and bone cells
(25%)
inorganic constituents, mainly calcium phosphate
(50%).
Types of bones
Bones are classified as:
long,
short,
irregular,
flat
and sesamoid.
Long bones. Fig. 1 A
These consist of a shaft and two extremities. As the
name suggests the length is much greater than the
width. Examples include the femur, tibia and fibula.
Short, irregular, flat and sesamoid bones.
These have no shafts or extremities and are diverse in
shape and size.
Examples include:
short bones carpals (wrist) Fig. 1B
irregular bones vertebrae and some skull bones Fig. 1C &
Fig. 1D
flat bones sternum, ribs and most skull bones Fig. 1E & 1D
Sesamoid bones patella (knee cap). Fig. 1F
Bone structure
General structure of a long bone (Fig. 16.1)
The diaphysis is composed of compact bone with a
central medullary canal, containing fatty yellow bone
marrow.
The epiphyses consist of an outer covering of
compact bone with cancellous bone inside.
The diaphysis and epiphyses are separated by
epiphyseal cartilages, which ossify when growth is
complete.
Thickening of a bone occurs by the deposition of new
bone tissue under the periosteum.
 Long bones are almost completely covered by a
vascular membrane, the periostelun.
The outer layer is fibrous and the inner layer is
osteogenic containing osteoblasts (bone-forming
cells) and osteoclasts (bone-destroying cells), which
are involved in maintenance and remodelling of
bones; it gives attachment to muscles and tendons and
protects bones from injury.
Hyaline cartilage replaces periosteum on the articular
surfaces of bones forming synovial joints.
Structure of short, irregular, flat and sesamoid bones
These have a relatively thin outer layer of compact
bone with cancellous bone inside containing red bone
marrow (Fig. 16.2).
They are enclosed by periosteum except the inner
layer of the cranial bones where it is replaced by dura
mater.
Functions of bones
provide the framework of the body
give attachment to muscles and tendons
permit movement of the body as a whole and of parts
of the body, by forming joints that are moved by
muscles
form the boundaries of the cranial, thoracic and pelvic
cavities, protecting the organs they contain
contain red bone marrow in which blood cells
develop: haematopoiesis
provide a reservoir of minerals, especially calcium
phosphate.
Axial skeleton Appendicular
(Fig. 1G) Bones of upper & lower
Forms the long axis extremities and girdles
of the body 126 bones in three
major regions
80 bones in three
Girdles
major regions
Shoulder girdle
skull
Pelvic girdle
vertebral column
upper extremity
bony thorax
lower extremity
Ribs
Sternum
 AXIAL SKELETON

Learning outcomes
After studying this section you should be able to:
identify the bones of the skull (face and cranium)
list the functions of the sinuses and fontanelles of the
skull
outline the characteristics of a typical vertebra
describe the structure of the vertebral column
explain the movements and functions of the vertebral
column
identify the bones that form the thoracic cage.
The Skull
The skull is the bodys most complex bony
structure
It is formed by two sets of bones, the 8 cranial
bones and the 14 facial bones
These 22 bones combine to form the cranial
cavity and the facial features
In addition, there are 3 bones in each inner ear
to assist in sound transmission
The bones of the skull provide . . .
A case to house the brain, the cranium
A framework for the face
Cavities to house the organs of sight, taste, and
smell
Passages for air and food
Attachment sites for the teeth
Attachment sites for muscle
 Most bones of the skull are flat bones
Except for the mandible, all bones are firmly
united by interlocking sutures
The major sutures of the skull are . . .
Coronal (Between Frontal & Parietal) Fig.
2A
Sagittal(Between Parietal bones)
Squamosal (Between Parietal & Temporal)
Lambdoidal (Between Parietal & Occipital)
Other skull sutures connect facial bones and
are named after these structures
 Cranium

The bones of the cranium are:

I frontal bone Fig. 2A
2 parietal bones
2 temporal bones
I occipital bone
1 sphenoid bone
1 ethmoid bone.
 The cranial vault
or calvaria
forms the
superior, lateral,
and posterior
aspects of skull
The cranial base
forming the
inferior aspect of
skull
Cranial Base
Cranial base forms the skulls inferior aspect
Three prominent ridges divide the base into fossae
The brain rests on these cranial fossae completely
enclosed by the cranial vault
The brain occupies the cranial cavity
Cavities of the Skull
In addition to the large cranial cavity there are
many smaller cavities
Middle and inner ear cavities
Nasal cavity (Fig. 1I)
Orbits of the eyes (Fig. 1H)
Several bones contain air filled sinuses (Fig. 1J)
Sinuses surrounding the nasal cavity are referred to as
the paranasal sinuses
 Facial bones

Consists of 14 bones w/ only mandible and vomer

unpaired
Others include maxillae, lacrimals, nasals,
zygomatics, inferior nasal conchae, and palatines (not
pictured)
Mandible
Forms the lower jaw
Largest, strongest bone of the face
It has a body and two upwardly projecting sections
called rami
Houses lower dentition
The Orbits Fig. 1H
The orbits are bony cavities within which the
eyes are encased and cushioned by fatty tissue
The muscles that move the eyes and the tear
producing lacrimal glands are housed within
the orbit
Formed by frontal, sphenoid, maxilla,
zygomatic, lacrimal palatine & ethmoid
Contain superior & inferior orbital fissures
Optic foramina
Nasal cavity Fig. 1I
The nasal cavity is constructed of bone and hyaline
cartilage
The cavity is divided into right and left parts by the
nasal septum
Superior, middle and inferior nasal concha project
into the cavity
The nasal septum and conchae are lined with mucus-
secreting mucosa
Paranasal sinuses Fig. 1J
Five skull bones; frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid,
and the paired maxillary contain mucus-lined,
air-filled sinuses
Cluster around nasal cavity
Connected to nasal cavity to allow air to enter
and mucus to drain
Lighten skull, warm and humidify air, enhance
voice resonance
Fontanelles of the skull (Fig. 16.15)
At birth, ossification of the cranial sutures is
incomplete. Where three or more bones meet there
are distinct membranous areas, or fontanelles.
The two largest are the anterior fontanelle, not fully
ossified until the child is 12 to 18 months old, and the
posterior fontanelle, usually ossified 2 to 3 months
after birth.
The skull bones do not fuse before birth to allow for
moulding of the babys head during its passage
through the birth canal.
 Vertebral column
consists of 24 separate movable, irregular bones, the
sacrum (five fused bones) and the coccyx (four fused
bones). (Fig. 142)
The 24 separate bones are in three groups: 7 cervical,
12 thoracic and 5 lumbar.
It contains four distinct curvatures
It provide axial support for the trunk
Transmits weight of trunk to lower limbs
Protects spinal cord
Attachment site for ribs and muscles
Separated by intervertebral discs
Characteristics of a typical vertebra (Fig. 143A & 143B)
The body is situated anteriorly. The size varies with
the site. They are smallest in the cervical region and
become larger towards the lumbar region.
The vertebral (neural) arch encloses a large
vertebral foramen. It consists of two pedicles that
project backwards from the body and two laminae.
Where the pedicles and laminae unite, transverse
processes project laterally and where the two laminae
meet in the midline posteriorly they form a spinous
process. The neural arch has four articular surfaces.
The vertebral foramina form the vertebral (neural)
canal that contains the spinal cord.
Curves of the vertebral column (Fig. 142) & Fig. 1L
When viewed from the side the vertebral column
presents four curves, two primary and two secondary.
The fetus in the uterus lies curled up so that the head
and the knees are more or less touching. This position
shows the primary curvature.
The secondary cervical curve develops when the child
can hold up his head (after about 3 months) and the
secondary lumbar curve develops when he stands
upright (after 12 to 15 months).
The thoracic and sacral primary curves are retained.
Clinical deviations (Fig. 142)
Scoliosis (Fig. 1K)
An abnormal lateral curvature of the spinal column
Curvature can occur in an S or C deviation
Kyphosis
An exaggerated dorsal curvature in the dorsal region
Common is aged individuals because of osteoporosis
Lordosis
Accentuated lumbar curvature
Being overweight or pregnant causes an excessive load up
front
Intervertebral Discs
Intervertebral discs are cushion like pads interposed
between vertebra
The discs provide elasticity and compressibility
Compression flattens discs
Discs are thickest in the cervical and lumbar to
provide flexibility
Annulus fibrosus surrounds the outer margin
Collagen fibers
Nucleus pulposus is the semi fluid substance which
shifts under body weight & pressure
Herniation of disc (Fig. 1M)
Functions of the vertebral column
the vertebral canal which provides a strong bony
protection for the delicate spinal cord lying within it.
intervertebral foramina providing access to the spinal
cord for spinal nerves, blood vessels and lymph
vessels.
individual bones enable a certain amount of
movement.
It supports the skull.
The intervertebral discs act as shock absorbers,
protecting the brain.
 It forms the axis of the trunk, giving attachment to the
ribs, shoulder girdle and upper limbs, and the pelvic
girdle and lower limbs.
 Thoracic cage
The bones of the thorax or thoracic cage are:
1 sternum (Fig. 170A)
12 pairs of ribs
12 thoracic vertebrae.
It is cone shaped with its broad opening
inferiorly
The thorax forms a bony cage around the
heart, lungs and major blood vessels
Functions of The Bony Thorax
Protection
Attachment point for muscles of the back,
chest, and shoulders
The intercostal muscles attach to the thorax to
lift and depress the thorax during respiration
The Sternum (Fig. 170A)
The sternum lies in the anterior midline of the
thorax
It is three fused bones
Manubrium
Jugular notch
Clavicular notch
Sternal body
Sternal angle
Xiphoid process
Xiphisternal joint
Ribs (Fig. 170A)
Twelve pairs forming thoracic cage
All attach posteriorly to thoracic vertebrae
Curve inferiorly toward anterior body surface
Ribs 1-7 attach directly to sternum by separate costal
cartilages and are referred to as true ribs
Ribs 8-10 attach indirectly to sternum by attaching to
costal cartilages immediately above
Ribs 11-12 have no anterior attachments and are
referred to as floating ribs
 Appendicular Skeleton
Learning outcomes
After studying this section you should be able to:
identify the bones that form the appendicular
skeleton
state the characteristics of the bones forming
the appendicular skeleton
outline the differences in structure between the
male and female pelvis.
 Appended to the axial skeleton
Pectoral girdle is for manipulation and is a
lighter, less heavily reinforced structure
Pelvic girdle is for weight bearing and
locomotion and is a heavier, more robust
structure
Differences appear in bone structure, joint
structure, ligaments, and muscle
 Shoulder girdle and upper limb

Each shoulder girdle consists of: Fig. 1N

o 1 clavicle
o 1 scapula.
Each upper limb consists of the following bones:
o 1 humerus
o 1 radius
o 1 ulna
o 8 carpal bones
o 5 metacarpal bones
o 14 phalanges.
Pectoral or Shoulder Girdle Fig. 1N
Consists of two bones, the anteriorly
positioned clavicle and the posteriorly
positioned scapula
Pectoral girdle is a loosely attached, held in
place largely by musculature attached to the
thorax and the vertebral column
Only direct ligament attachment exists at the
sternoclavicular joint
Frees girdle to move over the thorax as the
need arises
Flexible and Mobile
Pectoral girdle is very light to allow the upper
limb flexibility and mobility not allowed
anywhere else in body
This is possible because only the sternal end
of clavicle is attached to axial skeleton thus
allowing the scapula to move across thorax
and the arm with it
The socket of the shoulder joint is shallow
and poorly reinforced
Although this arrangement does not restrict
movement it is less stable
 Pelvic girdle and lower limb
The bones of the pelvic girdle are:
2 innominate bones
1 sacrum.
The bones of the lower limb are:
1 femur
1 tibia
1 fibula
1 patella
7 tarsal bones
5 metatarsal bones
14 phalanges.
The Pelvic (Hip) Girdle
Attaches the lower limbs to axial skeleton
Transfers the weight of the torso, head, and
upper extremities to lower limbs
Supports the visceral organs of the pelvis
Secured by strong ligaments and deep sockets
the joint is reinforced for stability
Less range of motion in all planes of movement
Female pelvic structure to facilitate
childbearing
 Pelvic girdle is formed by a pair of coxal
bones, each called an os coxae
Each os coxae unites anteriorly at the
pubic symphysis and with the sacrum
posteriorly
Each coxa is formed by the ilium,
ischium and pubic which were separate
during childhood but fused in adulthood
Collectively the os coxae, sacrum and
coccyx is called the pelvis
 The female pelvis reflects modifications
for child bearing
It tends to be wider, shallower, lighter,
and rounder than the male
Pelvic modifications accommodate the
growing fetus as well as providing a
birth canal wide enough to allow the
infants head to exit at birth
Pelvic inlet and outlet are critical to
delivery
The Lower Limb
Thigh
Femur
Leg
Tibia
Fibula
Foot (7 Tarsal bones)
Instep (5 Metatarsal bones)
Toes (14 Phalanges)
 Created by:
dr. Irwan
Bagian Anatomi
FK Unsri
Palembang
2009
Fig. 16.1
Fig. 1 A
Fig. 1 B
Fig. 1 C
Fig. 1 D
Fig. 1 E
Fig. 1 F
Fig. 16.2
Fig. 1G
Fig. 2A
Fig. 1H
Fig. 1I
Fig. 1J
Fig. 16.15
Fig. 142
Fig. 143A
Fig. 143B
Fig. 1K
Fig. 1L
Fig. 1M
Fig. 170A
Fig. 1N