Evolution of 1G To 4G

INTRODUCTION
TO GSM
Objectives
To provide participants with a

comprehensive introduction to
GSM concepts, features, services
and definitions, and also introduce
the emerging 3G technology and
the services and applications that
it offers.
Contents
1. Realities of the Changing World
2. History of Wireless Communications
3. Emerging Markets
4. Mobile Growth
5. Radio Theory Principles
6. Modulation Techniques
7. Radio Fundamentals
8. Global Systems for Mobile (GSM)
9. Technology
10. Frequency Reuse
11. GSM Architecture
12. Third Generation (3G) Systems
13. 4G Networks
14. Mobile Service Evolution
Realities of a Changing
Telecom World
Realities of a Changing Telecon

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History of Wireless
Communication
1906Human voice was successfully transmitted
over RADIO.
1921Detroit police dept. used 2 Mhz frequency in
vehicular mobile radio.
1930Amplitude Modulation was invented
1935---Frequency Modulation was invented
(improved audio quality).
1947Bell labs. Envisions the cellular concepts.
1991First digital cellular standard (GSM) is
launched
1998No. of subscriber world wide has grown to
over 200 million.
Emerging Markets
Emerging Networks and Markets
Three Change Agents
Competition
Technology
Customer Awareness
Emerging Markets
NewTechnologies
Mobile communications
Fixed wireless
Nomadic wireless
Full mobile wireless
Internet led to:

Next-Generation-Network technology
Mobile
Growth
Telecom growth globally over next five years is
forecast to be:
350 Million new users per year, or
1 Million every day, or
10 new subscribers every second
By the time we discussed this slide, another 1000 people
will have become telecom users
For most of these it will be their first phone

probably mobile
For half of these it will be their first camera, music
player or high speed Internet access
Mobile Growth
Most of this growth will happen on

mobile (wireless) platform
Mobile Growth
Challenge for fixed-wireline service providers:

Mobile is:
Untethered by fixed infrastructure

Simplicity of service provisioning
Promise of Next-Generation-Service repertoire
including:
Triple play and
Quad-play service packages
Mobile Growth
Latest Generation 4G allows mobile service

providers to
offer services similar to fixed wireline services or
better
at prices similar to fixed wireline or better
Mobile Growth
ITU Telecom World 06 (Day 1) says:

PSTN as fixed line revenue generator is in
decline
Voice is moving to IP and mobile
Competitors are not encumbered by installed
infrastructure, especially not mobile operators
Can offer faster, cheaper, feature rich services
on mobile or fixed wireline NGN platform
Mobile Growth
ITU Telecom World 06 (Day 1) says:

Only reason that mobile and fixed wireline
networks are not converged in most countries
is due to Regulation
Technically, there is no barrier
Mobile Evolution
Mobile networks are identified by technology

applied: Generation
1G: (first Generation): analog, voice only
2G: (second Generation): digital, GSM, voice and data
2.5G: enhanced GSM, circuit switched voice and packet
switched data
GPRS circuit improved data rates from 2G GSM
EDGE improved data rates from GSM GPRS
3G: WCDMA UMTS enhanced data rates, packet
switched voice and data
4G: all IP, true broadband data
Mobile Evolution
Mobile network evolution:
Mobile Evolution
1G introduced 1983:
Analog
Voice only
No global Standards
Northern Europe: NMTS (Nordic Mobile Telephone
System)
UK and Ireland: TACS (Total Access
Communication System)
North America: AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone
System)
Only limited roaming and only within the same
network
Mobile Evolution
2G introduced 1990:
Digital
Two technologies
North America:
CDMA (Code Division Multiplex) developed by
Qualcom
Geographically limited application
Europe, Asia and ROW (Rest of the World):
TDMA (Time Division Multiplex) leading to GSM
(Global System for Mobile Communication)
Most widely used worldwide, approx. 90% of global
users are on GSM platform and later
Mobile Evolution
2G GSM and VAS (Value Added Services):

Addition of two platforms:
VMS (Voice Mail System)
SMSC (Short Message Service Centre)
Later IN (Intelligent Services) was added to
VAS:
Fraud Management
Pre-Paid services
Mobile Evolution
2.5G GSM GPRS (General Packet Radio

Service):
Result of data traffic increasing to the point
where it has now overtaken voice traffic on the
network
Data packet handling through a Packet Core
Network
Network now contains servers, routers and firewall
Maximum data speed 150Kbps
Voice still circuit switched
Mobile Evolution
2.5G GSM EDGE (Enhanced Data rates in

GSM Environment):
Data rate had to be increased to handle data
traffic on the mobile network
Better coding methods
Led to maximum data speed of 384Kbps
Even though packetized data transfer, still behaved
like a circuit switched network because voice is still
circuit switched
Mobile Evolution
3G UMTS: WCDMA (Wideband Code

Division Multiplex Access) in UMTS
(Universal Mobile Terrestrial System):
North America:
cdma2000
Europe, Asia and ROW:
UMTS
WCDMA is air-interface technology for UMTS
Enables high capacity data services: video, music,
imaging
Data speeds up to 2Mbps
Mobile Evolution
4G All-IP (Internet Protocol):

Next-Generation-Network
Lower CAPEX
Lower OPEX
More efficient
Larger service repertoire
Data rates up to 14.4Mbps,
although trials at NTT DoCoMo reached 5Gbps
Calls for open, adaptive programmable Business
Model
Mobile Evolution
4G All-IP (Internet Protocol):

4G Business Model imperatives:
Boundaries between mobile operator and content
providers are clearly defined through reference
points and open APIs (Application Program
Interface)
Must ensure interoperability between all parties,
their respective business roles and services provided
Different evolution cycles of individual parts of the
system are built for quick adaptive actions
Requires layered architectural approach
Mobile Evolution
1G through 3G, including 2G, 2.5G GPRS and

EDGE:
Evolution based on technology enhancements
4G is a convergence strategy better utilizing
existing technologies
Two camps:
WiMAX
UMTS LTE (Long Term Evolution)
Mobile Evolution
3GPP2 (3rd Generation Partnership Project):

a collaboration between groups of telecommunications
associations supported by major cellular carriers
worldwide
Established in 1998
Production of Technical Specifications for a 3rd
Generation Mobile System based on the evolved GSM
core networks
Later expanded to include standards and specifications
for continued operation, maintenance and optimization
of 2G GSM, GPRS and EDGE
Mobile Evolution
3GPP2 (3rd Generation Partnership Project 2):

Formed by Standards Development Organizations
worldwide to develop standards leading to 4G
Supported by over 70 cellular telecommunications
companies worldwide
Established in 2003
Introduced concept of Long Term Evolution of UMTS
technology (UMTS LTE)
Mobile Evolution
Network Evolution
Radio Theory
Principles
FREQUENCY SPECTRUM
What is Frequency Spectrum?
Electric and magnetic fields that produce waves
moving through space at different frequencies
Set of all possible frequencies called the
electromagnetic spectrum
Nearly 300 billion frequencies
1% is below 300GHz fitting into Radio Spectrum

90% of spectrum use is within this range
Wireless communications and entertainment use
Therefore, need for spectrum allocation within this range
To prevent congestion which can lead to interference
For proper allocation and management, spectrum is sliced
into frequency bands
FREQUENCY SPECTRUM
Frequency Spectrum Subsets:
Radio spectrum: 3000Hz to 300GHz
Does not require a medium
Travels at speed of light
Can carry energy and messages
Long wave: below 3000Hz
Light spectrum: above 300GHz
Requires a medium (fibre optics) to be used in

telecommunications
Not under spectrum management rules
X-ray and gamma-ray frequencies even higher
WIRELESS SPECTRUM
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Includes:
Usable radio frequency spectrum
(3KHz to 300 GHZ)
Most usable spectrum for
communications purposes
Higher frequencies are in light or
optical spectrum
Communications applications are
primarily fibre optics transmission
Source: Louis E. Keiner, Coastal Carolina University

RADIO SPECTRUM
Radio Spectrum
suitable for
Telecommunications
Ranges from:
3KHZ Very Low
Frequency (VHF)
to
300GHz Extremely
High Frequency (EHF)
Source: www.wikipedia.org
RADIO SPECTRUM
Ultra High Frequency
Applications:
UHF = 300MHz to 3GHz
Suitable for telecommunications purposes
UHF television, mobile phone service, two-way radio
Usually frequency modulated, relatively narrow-band
Radio spectrum
ELF SLF ULF VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF
3 Hz 30 Hz 300 Hz 3 kHz 30 kHz 300 kHz 3 MHz 30 MHz 300 MHz 3 GHz 30 GHz
30 Hz 300 Hz 3 kHz 30 kHz 300 kHz 3 MHz 30 MHz 300 MHz 3 GHz 30 GHz 300 GHz
RADIO SPECTRUM
Attributes:
Lower frequencies: Higher frequencies:

Generally: Generally:
Long distance Short distance
Narrow bandwidth High bandwidth
Follow contour of Earth Require Line of Sight
Radio spectrum
ELF SLF ULF VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF
3 Hz 30 Hz 300 Hz 3 kHz 30 kHz 300 kHz 3 MHz 30 MHz 300 MHz 3 GHz 30 GHz
30 Hz 300 Hz 3 kHz 30 kHz 300 kHz 3 MHz 30 MHz 300 MHz 3 GHz 30 GHz 300 GHz
RADIO SPECTRUM
Use of the Radio Spectrum is hotly contested

Principal uses of the various segments of the radio
spectrum are:
Determined by the physical characteristics of the
individual frequency bands
For instance: TV broadcasting and mobile communications
are constrained within a relatively small part of the radio
spectrum
Furthermore limited by need to cater for other uses such as
aeronautical, scientific, emergency and military
applications.
RADIO SPECTRUM
Finite resource
The radio spectrum comprises the total free space frequencies
available for telecommunications
No additional frequencies can be added
Inexhaustible resource
Occupied by use but not consumed
However, only one user per frequency band
In a specific geographic area
At the same time
Can be reassigned for different areas provided there is sufficient
geographic separation
Flexible
Easily deployed
Less expensive than physical infrastructure
However, application dependent on characteristic of frequency band
RADIO SPECTRUM
Therefore,
Tightly managed
Global, regional and national control and management
Global management
ITU (International Telecommunications Union):
Through Standards (Recommendations)
Through World Radio Conferences
Fostering cooperation
Regional management
African Telecommunications Union (ATU)
Coordination of national interests
Through Regional Radio Conferences
Recommendations
ITU SPECTRUM REGIONS
WiMAX and WiFi Frequencies by Region:
Source: WiMAX Forum A New Broadband Wireless Technology

Modulation Techniques
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
ITU Frequency Band Nomenclature
ITU Band Designation Frequency Wavelength
1 ELF 3 - 30 Hz 100,000 km - 10,000 km
2 SLF 30 - 300 Hz 10,000 km - 1000 km
3 ULF 300 - 3000 Hz 1000 km - 100 km
4 VLF 3 - 30 kHz 100 km - 10 km
5 LF 30 - 300 kHz 10 km - 1 km
6 MF 300 - 3000 kHz 1 km - 100 m
7 HF 3 - 30 MHz 100 m - 10 m
8 VHF 30 - 300 MHz 10 m - 1 m
9 UHF 300 - 3000 MHz 1 m - 10 cm
10 SHF 3 - 30 GHz 10 cm - 1 cm
11 EHF 30 - 300 GHz 1 cm - 1 mm

TRANSMISSION BASICS
Radio Communications:
One-way only (Simplex):
Transmission in one direction only
Usually full frequency band assigned to one simplex
channel
TRANSMISSION BASICS
Two-way (Duplex):
Transmission in both directions at the same time,
however at different frequencies within one band
Frequency bandwidth split into two channels (Frequency
Division Duplexing FDD)
TRANSMISSION BASICS
Two-way (Half-duplex):
Transmission in both directions, however at different
times at the same frequencies
Full bandwidth used for transmission in either direction
TRANSMISSION BASICS
Information carried by carrier wave can be either analog
or digital
Analog Signals
Naturally produced sounds

Speech
Music
Others
Firsttelecommunications transmission
Continuous signal made up of varying
current and voltage
Analog Signals
Sine wave form
Signal Strength = Amplitude
Repeat of a 360 wave over time = Frequency
Analog Signals
Amplitude modulation is volume, strength
Frequency modulation is pitch
Suspect to noise and signal degradation
Noise is added to signal distorting original sine wave
Affects frequency
Difficult to regenerate
Degradation affects amplitude
Difficult to correct
Proper grounding of all components is mandatory
Digital Signals
Machine generated
State over time: 0 and 1
Measured in bits/second
Easily regenerated
Better suited for telecommunications
transmission than analog
Analog to digital conversion and vice versa:
Modem (Modulator/Demodulator)
Digital Signals
State:
Either ON or OFF,
Also 1 or 0
Digital Signals
Source: http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~www_pa/Scots_Guide/info/signals/digital/digital.htm
DIGITAL SIGNALS
More efficient use of bandwidth
Easy integration with PCS devices
Maintains higher quality of voice transmission
over longer distances
More difficult to decode
Can use lower transmit power
Uses smaller and less expensive transmission
equipment
Offers voice privacy
MODULATION TECHNIQUES
Analog Modulation Techniques:

Purpose:
To place information onto a carrier wave for
transmission
Amplitude modulation
Frequency modulation
Phase modulation
Combination of different techniques
Amplitude modulation:
Information is placed onto carrier signal
affecting amplitude
Frequency modulation:
affecting its frequency
Phase modulation:
affecting its timing (phase)
Amplitude and Phase modulation:

affecting its amplitude and its timing
Modulation of Analog Signals
Digital Modulation Techniques
The principal classes of modulation are:
Phase-shift keying (PSK)

Frequency-shift keying (FSK)
Minimum-shift keying (MSK)
Gaussian minimum-shift keying (GMSK)
Amplitude-shift keying (ASK) and its most common form, on-off keying
(OOK)
Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) a combination of PSK and ASK
Continuous phase modulation (CPM)
Polar modulation like QAM a combination of PSK and ASK, but using a
different circuit architecture
Amplitude Shift Keying:
Amplitude of carrier wave is determined by logic state of
digital signal
Frequency Shift Keying:
Frequency of carrier wave is determined by logic state of
digital signal
Phase Shift Keying:
Phase of carrier wave is determined by logic state of
digital signal
Radio Fundamentals
PROPAGATION
Propagation:
PROPAGATION
Propagation:
Mostcommon:
Line-of sight propagation
Transmitting and receiving antennae are in sight of each
other
Raising either antenna will increase distance
Ground wave propagation

Signals follow curvature of the earth
Looses energy to the ground
Sky wave propagation

Signals are bent by the Ionosphere
Cover large distances, some signals escape

PROPAGATION
PROPAGATION
Transmitting and receiving antennas must be within
line of sight
Satellite communication signal above 30 MHz not
reflected by ionosphere
Ground communication antennas within effective line of
site due to refraction
Refraction bending of microwaves by the
atmosphere
Velocity of electromagnetic wave is a function of the
density of the medium
When wave changes medium, speed changes
Wave bends at the boundary between mediums
PROPAGATION
Summary:
Source: WRAP, Aerotech Telub.se

FRESNEL ZONE
Definition:
KEN 3189
FRESNEL ZONE
Side view:
Source: Alcatel Microwave Propagation Path Design

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FRESNEL ZONE
Cross sectional View:

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FRESNEL ZONE
Obstruction Effect:

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FRESNEL ZONE
Path Clearance Requirement:
Simple line of sight is not sufficient
First Fresnel Zone clearance is required

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POWER
Transmission Power:
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IMPAIRMENTS
Propagation Losses
Free-Space Propagation
Loss between two points in free space
Reflection
Out of phase signals can fade 35-40 dB
In phase signals can give 6 dB upfades
Refraction
Impact similar to reflection
Rain Attenuation
Significant only above 7 GHz
Fog and Clouds
Only above ~ 20 GHz
Diffraction
Insufficient clearance over intermediate terrain
Airborne Particles
Sand and dust
Above ~ 14 GHz
Atmospheric Absorption
Caused by the oxygen and water molecules
Above ~ 8 GHz
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IMPAIRMENTS
Free Space Propagation Losses
>Free Space Loss

The basic transmission loss between transmit and receive
antennas in free space
This is the dominant propagation loss
>FSL(dB)= 96.6 + 20 Log D + 20 Log F
where: FSL=Free-space loss in dB
D=Path length in miles
F=Frequency in GHz
>The bottom line
Doubling either the path length or the frequency will increase the
path loss by 6 dB
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NOISE
Noise:
Intermodulation noise occurs if signals with

different frequencies share the same medium
Interference caused by a signal produced at a frequency
that is the sum or difference of original frequencies
Crosstalk unwanted coupling between signal paths
Impulse noise irregular pulses or noise spikes
Short duration and of relatively high amplitude
Caused by external electromagnetic disturbances, or
faults and flaws in the communications system
ATMOSPHERIC
IMPAIRMENTS
Atmospheric Impairments:
Atmospheric absorption water vapor and oxygen
contribute to attenuation
Multipath obstacles reflect signals so that
multiple copies with varying delays are received
Refraction bending of radio waves as they
propagate through the atmosphere
REFRACTION
Types of Refraction

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REFRACTION
Refraction:
>The ability of a medium to bend an electromagnetic wave as it
passes through that medium
The amount of bending is described by the index of refraction
>Index of Refraction (little n)
Measurement of the relative density of a medium
n = c / v
c = Velocity of light in free space
v = Velocity of rf signal in earths atmosphere
n ~ 1.0003 under normal conditions in the ABL (Atmospheric
Boundary Layer)
>Radio Refractivity (big N)
N = ( n-1 ) * 106
N ~ 300 N-units under normal conditions
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REFRACTION
Refraction causes tunnelling

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REFRACTION
Refraction causes bending

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REFRACTION
>Radio Refractivity for signals up to about 30 GHz can be calculated using
the following equation.
N = (77.6 * P/T) + (3.73 X 105* e/T2)
Where:
N = Radio Refractivity in N-units
P = Atmospheric pressure in millibars
T = Temperature in degrees Kelvin
e = Water vapor pressure in millibars
>Radio Refractivity Gradient
The change in refractivity with height
For standard atmospheric conditions
-100 < dN/dh < 0 N-units / km
Large radio refractivity gradients are the nemesis for

line of sight microwave signals
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REFRACTION
Refraction

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RAIN ATTENTUATION
Rain Attenuation:
Can limit distance between sites
Can diminish available bandwidth
May call for Space Diversity protection
Higher frequencies are especially vulnerable
Can cause Fading (signal loss)
RAIN ATTENUATION
Rain Attenuation

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FADING
Fading (loss of signal):
Fast fading
Slow fading
Flat fading
Selective fading
Rayleigh fading
Rician fading
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MULTIPATH
PROPAGATION
Reflection - occurs when signal encounters a
surface that is large relative to the wavelength of
the signal
Diffraction - occurs at the edge of an
impenetrable body that is large compared to the
wavelength of a radio wave
Scattering occurs when an incoming signal hits
an object whose size in the order of the
wavelength of the signal or less
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MULTIPATH PROPAGATION
Multipath Propagation (example):
Multipath Propagation Mechanisms: R Reflection, S Scattering,

D - Deflection
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MULTIPATH PROPAGATION
Effects of Multipath Propagation:
Multiple copies of a signal may arrive at different phases
If phases add destructively, the signal level
relative to noise declines, making detection
more difficult
Intersymbol interference (ISI)
One or more delayed copies of a pulse may
arrive at the same time as the primary pulse for
a subsequent bit
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SPACE DIVERSITY
Space Diversity is applied
Where reflection causes out-of-phase transmissions

Can be over water
Can be caused by rain
Where First Fresnel Zone can not fully clear path
obstructions
Other out-of-phase or delay problems
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SPACE DIVERSITY
Typical Space Diversity architecture

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ANTENNA
CONSIDERATIONS
>Antenna Gain
A measure of how well the antenna concentrates its radiated power in a
given direction
Defined as the ratio of the power radiated in a given direction to
the power radiated in the same direction by a isotropic antenna

ANTENNA
CONSIDERATIONS
Radiation Pattern

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ANTENNA CONSIDERATIONS
Imperfections

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Radiation Power Distribution

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Parabolic Antenna Beamwidth Example

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Link Budget
Components in calculating:
Source: WRAP, Aerotech Telub.se
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Link Budget
What is a Link Budget?
A link budget is the accounting of all of the gains and losses from the
transmitter, through the medium (free space, cable, waveguide, fiber, etc.) to
the receiver in a telecommunication system. It takes into account the
attenuation of the transmitted signal due to propagation, as well as the loss,
or gain, due to the antenna. Random attenuations such as fading are not
taken into account in link budget calculations with the assumption that
fading will be handled with diversity techniques.
A simple link budget equation looks like this:
Received Power (dB) = Transmitted Power (dBm) + Gains (dB) - Losses (dB)
Source: Wikipedia.org
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BANDWIDTH
Can have different meanings:
In an analog system:
bandwidth is the range of frequencies occupied by a
modulated carrier wave,
a measure of how wide a function is in the frequency
domain
In a digital system:
has a dual meaning
Baud rate (speed of transmission)
Channel capacity (throughput: # of channels x speed)
Reasons for
Interference
The transmission path is very complex, ranging from
the simple line-of-sight transmission to encountering
such terrain as buildings, hills and trees. Wireless
channels are extremely unpredictable.
Abrupt drop, or fading, of signal strength in the land

mobile wireless channel is quite common. The fading
feature of the mobile channel depends on the radio wave
propagation environment.
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Reasons for interference
Environmental factors:
Terrain (mountains, hills, plains, water bodies, etc.);
The quantity, heights, distribution and materials of
buildings;
The vegetation of the region;
Weather conditions;
Natural and artificial electromagnetic noises;
Frequency;
How MS is moved.
123
Interference
Co-Channel Interference
Conception:
The interference among the
signals of co- channel cells is
called co-channel interference.
Result from :
Frequency reuse
Reduction method:
Co-channel cells must physically
be spaced at a minimum
interval to ensure adequate 124
isolation of transmissions.
Interference
AdjacentChannel Interference
Conception:
The signal interference from the frequency
adjacent to that of the signal used is called
adjacent channel interference.
Reduction method:
Accurate filtering and channel allocation
(maximizing channel intervals of the
cell). Interval of frequency reuse inter-cell
interference, such as C/I, C/A
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2G - GSM
What is ?
GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication)
Based on TDMA technology
Mainly used in Europe, Middle-east and Africa
CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)

Based on a spread-spectrum technology
Mainly used in North America
127
GSM
formerly: Groupe Spciale Mobile (founded 1982)
now: Global System for Mobile Communication
Pan-European standard (ETSI, European
Telecommunications Standardisation Institute)
simultaneous introduction of essential services in
three phases (1991, 1994, 1996) by the European
telecommunication administrations (Germany: D1
and D2)
seamless roaming within Europe possible
today many providers all over the world use GSM
(more than 184 countries in Asia, Africa, Europe,
Australia, America)
more than 70% of all digital mobile phones use GSM
over 10 billion SMS per month in Germany, > 360
billion/year worldwide
Performance
characteristics of GSM
Communication
mobile, wireless communication; support for voice and data
services
Total mobility
international access,
Worldwide connectivity
High capacity
better frequency efficiency, smaller cells, more customers per
cell
High transmission quality
high audio quality and reliability for wireless, uninterrupted
phone calls at higher speeds (e.g., from cars, trains)
Security functions
access control, authentication
GENERATION OF GSM
1st generation:- Analog mobile technologies :-

AMPS , TACS & NMT.
2nd generation:- digital mobile technologies :-

GSM , CDMA
2.5generation:- Enhancement of GSM:- GPRS
3rd generation:- Technologies coursed by ITU-IMT
The following table lists the key events in the GSM

evolution
2.5 g+
2.5 G UMTS 3G
WCDMA
2G
EDGE
GPRS
GSM
GSM STANDARDS
GSM-900 Standard
The GSM-900 standard is a standard for digital voice transmission in

the 900 MHz band. This so called primary band" includes two sub
bands of 25 MHz
GSM-1800 Standard
In GSM-1800, 1800 MHz band was allocated for digital mobile

telephone services which has frequency of 75 MHz. This was three
times the bandwidth allocated for GSM-900.
GSM-1900 Standard
GSM-1900 is the standard for the 1900MHz band. It includes the same
network component as the GSM-900 or GSM-1800. The band width of
this standard is 60 MHz.
GPRS - Wireless Data Services .
EDGE -- Provides 3 times the data
capacity of GPRS.
3G --- Uses WCDMA technologies Over
Air interface (5MHz).
Basic Features Provided by
GSM
Call Waiting
- Notification of an incoming call while on the handset
Call Hold
- Put a caller on hold to take another call
Call Barring
- All calls, outgoing calls, or incoming calls
Call Forwarding
- Calls can be sent to various numbers defined by the user
Multi Party Call Conferencing
- Link multiple calls together
Advanced Features Provided
by GSM
Calling Line ID
- incoming telephone number displayed
Alternate Line Service
- one for personal calls
- one for business calls
Closed User Group
- call by dialing last for numbers
Advice of Charge
- tally of actual costs of phone calls
Fax & Data
- Virtual Office / Professional Office
Roaming
- services and features can follow customer from market to
market
Advantages of GSM
Crisper, cleaner quieter calls
Security against fraud and eavesdropping
International roaming capability in over 100 countries
Improved battery life
Efficient network design for less expensive system
expansion
Efficient use of spectrum
Advanced features such as short messaging and caller ID
A wide variety of handsets and accessories
High stability mobile fax and data at up to 9600 baud
Ease of use with over the air activation, and all account
information is held in a smart card which can be moved
from handset to handset
Future -- UMTS (Universal Mobile
Telephone System
Reasons for innovations
- new service requirements
- availability of new radio bands
User demands
- seamless Internet-Intranet access
- wide range of available services
- compact, lightweight and affordable terminals
- simple terminal operation
- open, understandable pricing structures for the whole
spectrum of available services
Spectrum
GSM uses paired radio channels
PLINK
U
LINK
O WN
D
890MHz 915MHz 935MHz 960MHz
0 124 0 124
Capacity & Spectrum Utilization
Solution
The need:
Optimum spectrum
usage Network capacity at required QoS
More capacity with conventional frequency plan
High quality of service
Low cost Out of
Capacity!!!
Subscriber
growth
Time
increase capacity
I wish I could
without adding NEW BTS!

What can I do?
Radio spectrum availability
Multiple access schemes
"keep away from my frequency" (Titanic 1912)
FDMA - Frequency Division Multiple Access (since 1920s)
radio broadcasting
regulation of frequencies was started
1st generation mobile systems (NMT, TACS, )
TDMA Time Division Multiple Access (1980-)
2nd generation mobile systems: GSM, US-TDMA, PDC
(Personal Digital Cellular)
narrowband systems
Code Division Multiple Access (late 1990s-)
3rd generation mobile systems: WCDMA, CDMA2000
Technology
FDMA (Frequency division Multiple
Access)
TDMA (Time division Multiple

Access)
Technology: FDMA
Transmission over Radio Frequency (800MHz
1900MHz)
Frequency Division Multiple Access
An analog system. Each user is given one channel (i.e., one
frequency). Bad utilisation.
Power
e
m
Ti
3
2
Frequency
1
CH
CH
CH
CH
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DIFFERENT TYPE OF TECHNOLOGIES USED IN GSM
FDMA (Frequency division Multiple Access)
In FDMA, signals from various users are assigned different
frequencies. Frequency guard bands are maintained between
adjacent signal spectra to minimize crosstalk between channels.
Advantages of FDMA
1. Capacity increase can be obtained by reducing the information bit

rate and using efficient digital codes.
2. Technological advances required for implementation are simple. A
system can be configured so that improvement in terms of speech
code bit rate reduction could be readily incorporated.
Disadvantages of FDMA
The maximum bit rate per channel is fixed and low, inhibiting the
flexibility in bit-rate capability that is needed for computer file
transfers
Frequency multiplex
Separation of the whole spectrum into smaller frequency

bands
A channel gets a certain band of the
spectrum for the whole time k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6

Advantages: c
no dynamic coordination f
necessary
works also for analog signals
Disadvantages:
waste of bandwidth
if the traffic is
distributed unevenly
t
inflexible
guard spaces
Technology: TDMA
GSM uses TDMA (Time CDMA is a "spread spectrum"
Division Multiple Access) technology, allowing many users to
occupy the same time and
frequency allocations in a given
band/space.
Power
Each mobile station has a unique

digital code. The signals are spread
over the entire spectrum of
1.25MHz unlike FDMA/TDMA.
e
m
Ti
Frequency
Ch l
l
Ch e l
Ch l
ne
ne
ne
n
an
an
an
an
Ch
4
1
147
TDMA (TIME DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS)
In a TDMA system, data from each user is conveyed in time

intervals called Time slots. Several slots make up a frame . Each
slot is made up of a preamble plus information bits addressed to
various stations .the functions of the preamble are to provide
identification and incidental information and to allow synchronization
of the slot at the intended receiver .Guard times are used between
each users transmission to minimize crosstalk between channels.
Advantage of TDMA
1) TDMA permits a flexible bit rate.
2) TDMA offers the opportunity for frame-by-frame monitoring of the
signal strength and bit error rates.
3) TDMA transmits each signal with sufficient guard time between
time slots.
Time multiplex
A channel gets the whole spectrum for a certain
amount of time
Advantages:
only one carrier in the
medium at any time k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
throughput high even
for many users
c
Disadvantages: f
precise
synchronization
necessary
t
Time and Frequency
Multiplex
Combination of both methods
A channel gets a certain frequency band for a
certain amount of time k k k k k k6
1 2 3 4 5
c
f
t
Time and Frequency Multiplex
Example: GSM
Advantages:
Better protection against
tapping
Protection against frequencyk
1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
selective interference
c
Higher data rates compared to
f
code multiplex
But: precise coordination
required
t
Various Access Method
Cells
The coverage area is divided into hexagonal cells

A BTS is situated at three of the vertices of each cell
In USA, the spectrum in each cell is divided into two
bands: A-band and B-band, each 25 MHz
Each 25 MHz band is divided into 832 30 kHz channels
Two channels separated by 45 MHz
forms a full-duplex channel
Cell Site
The number of channels used in a cell
varies from as low as 4 to as many as 80
153
Cells
Representation of Cells
Ideal cells Fictitious cells

Cell size and capacity
Cell size determines number of cells

available to cover geographic area and
(with frequency reuse) the total
capacity available to all users
Capacity within cell limited by available
bandwidth and operational
requirements
Each network operator has to size cells
to handle expected traffic demand
Cell structure
Implements space division multiplex: base station covers a
certain transmission area (cell)
Mobile stations communicate only via the base station
Advantages of cell structures:
higher capacity, higher number of users
less transmission power needed
more robust, decentralized
base station deals with interference, transmission area
etc. locally
Problems:
fixed network needed for the base stations
handover (changing from one cell to another) necessary
interference with other cells
Cell sizes from some 100 m in cities to, e.g., 35 km on the
country side (GSM) - even less for higher frequencies
Speech Coding
GSM transmits using digital modulation - speech must be
converted to binary digits. Coder and decoder must work to
the same standard Simplest coding scheme is Pulse Code
Modulation (PCM)
Sampling every 125 s
Requires data rate of 64 kbps
Frequency Reuse
The spectrum allocated for a cellular network is
limited. As a result there is a limit to the number
of channels or frequencies that can be used. For
this reason each frequency is used simultaneously
by multiple base-mobile pairs. This frequency
reuse allows a much higher subscriber density
per MHz of spectrum than other system.
System capacity can be further increased by
reducing the cell size down to radii as small as
200m
Frequency Reuse
7 cell re-use pattern

f7
f6
f2
f7
f1
f6
f5 f2
f3
f1
f4
f5
f3
f4
Frequency Reuse
D3 A1 C2 C3 B1 D2
C1 A2 A3 D1 B2 B3 C1
C3 B1 D2 D3 A1 C2 C3
A1 B2 B3 C1 A2 A3 D1
D2 A1 C2 C3 B1 D2
A1 D3
4 3 reuse mode:
one group includes 3 sectors /site ,12 frequency which are
distributed to 4 sites. Every site owns 3 frequency.
162
Frequency Reuse
B3 A1 B2 B3 A1 B2
C1 A2 A3 C1 A2 A3 C1
C3 B1 C2 C3 B1 C2 C3
A1 B2 B3 A1 B2 B3 A1
A3 C1 A2 A3 C1 A2
A1 A3
3 3 reuse mode:
one group includes 3 sectors /site ,9 frequency which are
distributed to 3 sites. Every site owns 3 frequency.
163
Frequency Reuse
GSM Architecture
2G Architecture
2G mobile system has two major components:

Fixed installed network
Mobile subscribers
2G Architecture
Fixed installed network has three

sub networks:
Radio network
Transmission network
Mobile switching network,
Plus
Three Management subsystems
2G Architecture
Components in a 2G GSM Network
BS BSS
MS: Mobile Subscriber

BSS: Base Station Subsystem
BS: Transmit/Receiver Cell Tower
BTS: Base Transceiver Station
BSC: Base Station Controller
MSC: Mobile Switching Centre
HLR: Home Location Register
VLR: Visitor Location Register
GMSC: Dedicated Gateway MSC
EIR: Equipment Identify Register GMSC
(optional)
2G Architecture
Components in a 2G GSM Network
2G Architecture
Fixed installed network has three subsystems:

Base Station Subsystems (BSS)
Switching and Management Subsystem
(SMSS)
Operation and Management Subsystem
(OMSS)
2G Architecture

Main tasks include:
Frequency administration
Control of Base Transceiver Station
Exchange functions
2G Architecture

Base Station Controller (BSC)
Base Transceiver Station (BTS)
Base Station (BS)
Mostly combined BTS/BS
2G Architecture

BTS usually located in centre of a cell
Provides radio channels for signalling and user
traffic
BS has between 1 to 16 BTS
Each with a separate radio frequency channel
2G Architecture

Can be located
At the same site as the BTS
Standalone, or
At the site of the Mobile Switching Centre
(MSC)
2G Architecture
Mobile Switching Network

Mobile Switching Subsystem (MSS) consists of
Mobile Switching Centres (MSC)
Databases
Store data required for routing
Store data pertaining to service provisioning
2G Architecture
Mobile Switching Centre (MSC)

Performs same function as a Fixed
Network Switching Centre:
Routing path search
Signal routing
2G Architecture
Dedicated Gateway MSC (GMSC)

Passes voice traffic between fixed and
mobile networks
If the fixed network is unable to connect an
incoming call to the local MSC it routes the
call to the GMSC
GMSC request routing information from the
Home Location Register (HLR)
Connections to international mobile networks
are routed via the International Switching Centre
(ISC)
2G Architecture
Home and Visitor Location Registers (HLR and VLR)
Synchronization of registration of
subscribers and their current location:
Within the home network, subscriber is
registered at the HLR
Outside his home network, subscriber is
registered at the VLR of the network he is
currently in
Cellular Architecture
HLR
BSC A
Abis
VLR
Um
MSC PST
BSC
N
EIR
AuC
BTS
Mobile Base Station Network
Station Subsystem Subsystem
179
GSM Network Structure
OMC
MSC/VLR
BSC
E
BIE
Abi A PSTN
BTS s MSC/VLR ISDN
BSS PSPDN
C
Um F H
HLR/
AUC EIR SC/VM
MS
MSS
180
GSM Network Entity
Mobile Station ( MS )
Equipment used by mobile service subscribers for

access to services.
Mobile Equipment
Subscriber Identity Module (SIM)
Mobile stations are not fixed to one subscriber.
A subscriber is identified with the SIM card.
182
Mobile Station
MOBILE STATION (MS) :-
The mobile station (MS) represents the
terminal equipment used by the wireless
subscriber supported by the GSM Wireless
system.
The SIM may be a removable module, while

the equipment identity is not linked to a
particular subscriber.
Functions of a Mobile Station :-

Radio transmission termination.
Radio Channel Management.
Speech Encoding/Decoding
Radio Link error Protection.
Flow control of data.
Mobility Management.
GSM Network Entity
Base Transceiver Station

( BTS )
Base Transceiver Station (BTS)
Wireless transmission
Wireless diversity
Wireless channel encryption
Conversion between wired and wireless signals
Frequency Hopping
BaseBand Unit:
voice and data speed adapting and channel coding
RF Unit:
modulating/demodulating, transmitter and receiver
Common Control Unit:
BTS operation and maintenance
184
GSM Network Entity
Base Station Controller

( BSC )
Managing Wireless network-BSS
Monitoring BTS
Controls:
Wireless link distribution between MS and BTS
Communication connection and disconnection
MS location, handover and paging
Voice encoding, transecoding (TC), rate, adaptation,
The operation and maintenance functions of BSS.
185
GSM Network Entity
Mobile Service Switching Center

( MSC )
holds all the switching functions

manages the necessary radio resources,
updating the location registration
carrying out the inter-BSC and inter-MSC tender
Inter-working with other networks (IWF).
186
GSM Network Entity
Home Location Register

( HLR
Manages the ) subscribers database
mobile
subscriber information
part of the mobile location information
3 identities essential
the International Mobile subscriber Identity
the Mobile station ISDN Number
the VLR address
Each PLMN Should have at least one HLR

187
GSM Network Entity
Visitor Location Register

( VLR
Dynamically stores )
subscriber information needed to handle
incoming/outgoing calls
Mobile Station Roaming Number

When a roaming mobile enters an MSC area. This MSC warns the
associated VLR of this situation; the mobile enters a registration
procedure through which it is assigned a mobile subscriber roaming
number (MSRN)
Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity, if applicable

The location area in which the mobile has been
registered
Data related to supplementary service parameters
Copy of the subscriber data from the HLR.
One VLR is connected to several MSC ,but one MSC has
one VLR 188
The Network Switching System
This consists of the Mobile services Switching Centre
(MSC) and its associated system-control databases and
processors together with the required interfaces. This is
the part which provides for interconnection between
the GSM network and the Public Switched Telephone
Network (PSTN).
The Operations and Maintenance System
This enables the network provider to configure and
maintain the network from a central location.
The Operation and maintenance Center (OMC) is the
centralized maintenance and diagnostic heart of the
base station system (BSS). It allows the network
provider to operate, administer , and monitor the
functioning of the BSS.
GSM Network Entity
AUC
Authentication Center(s) (AUC)
Providing the authentication key used for authorizing the subscriber

access to the associated GSM PLMN.
Contains subscriber authentication data called authentication key (Ki)
Generates security related parameters needed to authorize service using Ki.
Generates unique data pattern called a cipher key (Kc) needed for
encrypting user speech and data.
191
EIR
Equipment Identity Register(s) (EIR)
Handling Mobile Station Equipment Identity

The Equipment Identity Register (EIR) is accessed during
the equipment validation procedure when a mobile station
accesses the system .It contains the identity of mobile
station equipment which may be valid, suspect, or known to
be fraudulent.
This contains :
White or Valid list list of valid MS equipment
identities.
Grey or Monitored list list of suspected mobiles under
observation.
Black or prohibited list list of mobiles for which service
is barred
BASE STATION SYSTEM (BSS) :- (BSC+BTS)
Characteristics of the Base Station System (BSS) are :
The BSS is responsible for communicating with mobile
stations in cell areas.
One BSC controls one or more BTSs and can perform
inter-BTS and intra-BTS handover.
BASE STATION SYSTEM (BSS) :-
(BSC+BTS)
The BSS consists of three major hardware components:
1) The Base Transceiver Station BTS
The BTS contains the RF components that provide the air interface for a particular
cell .This is the part of the GSM network which communicates with the MS. The
antenna is included as part of the BTS.
2) The Base Station Controller BSC
The BSC as its name implies provides the control for the BSS. The BSC
communicates directly with the MSC. The BSC may control single or multiple
BTSs.
3) The Transcoder XCDR
The Transcoder (XCDR) is required to convert the speech or data output from the
MSC
(64 kbit/s PCM), into the form specified by GSM specifications for transmission
over the
air interface, that is, between the BSS and MS (64 kbit/s to 16 kbit/s and vice
versa)
Characteristics of the Base Station
System (BSS) are :
The BSS is responsible for communicating with

mobile stations in cell areas.
One BSC controls one or more BTSs and can perform
inter-BTS and intra-BTS
handover.
Services
SMS (Short Message Service)
http://www.gsmworld.com/technology/sms/intro.sht
ml
Facsimile (for receiving fax on a mobile station)
WAP (Wireless Application Protocol) a standard to
let wireless equipment access the Internet. A
Wireless Markup Language (WML) is used to encode
the pages instead of HTML.
MMS (Multimedia Message Service)
EDGE (Enhanced Data rates for GSM evolution)
The ever elusive Killer app
196
2.5G: GPRS
(General Packet Radio Service)
GPRS and EDGE
GPRS General Packet Radio Services
2.5G protocol
Involved only software changes to the GSM network.
Used under utilized TDMA channels more effectively.
Increased data rates to a max of 170 Kbps.
EDGE Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution.
2.75G protocol.
Required minimal hardware changes
Added a new encoding scheme that allowed for
more bits to be added into each time slice.
Data can now be passed optimally at 384 Kbps.
Both of these use TDMA over GSM
GPRS
Limitations of 2G networks:
Low data transfer rates:
2G GSM networks primarily for voice services
Voice only requires low transfer rates
Low efficiency for packet switched services:
Cannot satisfy demand for Internet access,
especially when roaming
Wireless Internet access over 2G GSM network
is not efficiently implemented
Multiple Standards:
Due to multiple Standards between different
networks, 2G network technology is semi-global
GPRS
Data traffic on 2G networks demanded

by users
Required a more efficient method of
dealing with non-voice traffic
Essentially separation of voice from
non-voice traffic
GPRS is a non-voice, data value added
service on an existing circuit switched
GSM network
GPRS
That means:
On an existing 2G GSM network, operator
just adds a few nodes and a few software
changes
Thereby upgrades the existing voice GSM
system to voice plus data on GPRS
Voice traffic is circuit-switched
Data traffic is packet switched
Packet switching uses network resources
only when
GPRS
That means:
Packet switching uses network resources
only when subscriber is actually sending
and receiving data
Voice traffic requires continuous
assignment of resources regardless of
whether subscriber is talking or not
GPRS
Voice
Data
2.5G GPRS Network
Planning
Basics of GPRS
GSM was capable of providing a data rate of 9.6 kbps on a
single time slot.
With the advent of high-speed circuit-switched data
(HSCSD), the capability of the network was increased multi-
fold, to 115.2 kbps.
In practice, however, it was only 64 kbps owing to the
limitation of the A-interface and the core network.
The main benefit of the implementation of HSCSD was that,
with limited upgrading (i.e. minimum investment), the
capacity for data transfer was increased to up to
four TS on the receiving side and
two TS on the transmitting side.
2.5G GPRS Network
Planning
Basics of GPRS
But the traffic was still circuit-switched, which meant a long
access time to the network.
As charging is proportional to the logging time, the subscriber
ends up paying more.
This led to the application of packet-switched technology in the
network.
In this technology, the access time to the network is reduced
and charging is done solely on the usage of the network; i.e.
even when a connection is there but not being used, the
subscriber is not charged.
2.5G GPRS Network
Planning
Basics of GPRS
Usage of the network resources becomes more
dynamic and efficient.
They are no longer reserved for a user logged to the
network, even when he is not using the resources.
This system is known as a general radio packet
system (GPRS).
2.5G GPRS Network
Planning
Basics of GPRS
GPRS is an addition to the existing GSM system, enabling
packet-switched transmission in the network whilst keeping the
existing value-added services like SMS, etc.
Because of this, data rates increase substantially:
the user now can log into the GPRS network, and can make
use of all eight TS dynamically and be charged only when
using the resources.
The packet data can be sent during idle times also, between
speech calls, thus making effective use of the network resources
and saving money for the subscriber
2.5G GPRS Network
Basics of GPRS Planning
GPRS technology is an addition to the existing GSM technology.
Because of the introduction of packet switching, the new network
elements are those capable of performing packet switching.
The main ones are the Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN)
and the Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN).
The GSM system is orientated towards providing a voice service.
So, apart from the addition of new elements such as SGSN and
GGSN, there are only minor changes required in the GSM network
elements in the BSS and HLR.
These are both hardware- and software related changes and are
due to the higher-level coding schemes that are being used in the
GPRS technology.
2.5G GPRS Network
Planning
Basics of GPRS
The most important change is the addition of a PCD
(packet control unit) at the base station controller.
The GPRS system with all these elements looks the
same as the GSM except for the addition of the packet-
handling core part, as shown in the following slide.
As all the network elements of the GSM have been
explained in the Module on GSM, here only the new
elements will be discussed.
But first let us look at the changes in the mobile
station.
2.5G GPRS Network
Planning
Basics of GPRS
2.5G GPRS Network
Planning
GPRS Mobile Station
The fundamental difference between a GSM mobile
and GPRS mobile is that the GPRS mobile is able to
handle the packet data at a higher speed.
GPRS mobile stations have been classified into
three classes, A, B and C, based on their ability to
handle cellular networks.
Class A mobiles are connected to both the GSM
and GPRS networks and can use them
simultaneously.
Class B mobiles are connected to both the
networks, but they can use only one at a time.
Class C mobiles can only connect to either one of
the networks.
2.5G GPRS Network
Planning
GPRS Mobile Station
2.5G GPRS Network
Planning
Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN)
SGSN is the most important element in a GPRS network.
It is the service access point for the mobile station.
Its main functions include mobility management and
registration and authentication.
It also interacts with a mobile with packet data flow and
functions related to it like compression and ciphering.
These are handled by protocols such as
SNDCP (sub-network dependent convergence protocol)
LLC (logical link control) and
GTP (gate tunnelling protocol) tunnelling to the other
support nodes.
2.5G GPRS Network
Planning
Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN)
The GGSN is connected to the SGSN on the network side and
to the outside world external networks such as the Internet
and X.25.
As it is a gateway to the external networks, its main function is
to act as a 'wall' for these external networks in order to protect
the GPRS network.
When data come from the external network, after verification
of the address, the data are forwarded to the SGSN.
If the address is found to be invalid, the data are discarded.
On the other hand, the SGSN also routes the packets it
receives from the mobile to the correct network.
Thus, for the outside networks, the SGSN acts as a router.
2.5G GPRS Network
Planning
Border Gateway (BG)
The border gateway interconnects different
GPRS operators' backbones, thereby
facilitating the roaming feature.
It is based on the standard IP router
technology.
2.5G GPRS Network
Planning
Legal Interception Gateway (LlG)
The LIG performs 'legal' functions in the network.
Subscriber data and signalling can be intercepted
by using this gateway, thus enabling the
authorities to track criminal activities.
LIG is required when launching a GPRS service.
2.5G GPRS Network
Planning
Domain Name System (DNS)
DNS does the translation of IP host names to
IP addresses, thereby making IP network
configuration easier.
In the GPRS backbone, SGSN uses DNS to get
GGSN and SGSN IP addresses.
2.5G GPRS Network
Planning
Packet Control Unit (PCU)
This is a new card that is inserted in the BSC to
manage the GPRS traffic.
The PCU has limitations in terms of the number of
transceivers and base stations it can manage,
thereby creating a bottleneck for the network
design usually in terms of capacity.
Increasing the capacity of the network leads to an
increase in PCU capacity, thereby increasing the
hardware costs of the network.
2.5G: EDGE
(Enhanced Data Rate for
GSM Evolution)
EDGE
EDGE works on TDMA and GSM networks

Is an enhancement of GPRS
Does not require additional network
equipment
Requires hardware upgrades in BTS, and
Software upgrades in network
EDGE
EDGE achieves data rates up to 500Kbps

Using different modulation scheme:
8-PSK (Phase Shift Keying)
Provides capabilities similar to 3G on 2.5G
networks
Is suitable for national roaming, however,
Limitations of 2.5G global roaming
capabilities and other limitations led to
introduction of 3G
2.5G EDGE Network
Planning
Basics of EDGE Networks
GPRS networks are able to handle higher bit rates than
GSM networks, but the data rates still fall short of what
is required to make existing GSM networks deliver
services at a speed comparable to that promised by
third-generation networks.
The delay in the deployment of third-generation
systems led to the emergence of a technology known
as EDGE.
This was capable of delivering services similar to those
of third-generation networks, yet with implementation
on the existing second-generation networks (e.g.
GSM).
2.5G EDGE Network
Planning
EDGE stands for 'enhanced data rates for GSM
evolution'.
The enhancement from GSM was to GPRS (i.e. voice
and packet, while further enhancement of GPRS led to
EDGE networks.
The fundamental concept remains the same, i.e. voice,
CS data and PS data being carried, and the network
architecture is the same as in a GPRS network.
2.5G EDGE Network
Planning
In ECSD, though user data rates do not go beyond
64 kbps, fewer time slots are required to achieve
this compared to HSCSD.
The architecture of ECSD is based on HSCSD
transmission and signalling, thus having minimal
impact on existing specifications.
2.5G EDGE Network
Planning
2.5G EDGE Network
Planning
The EDGE System
EDGE system is quite similar to the GPRS system, but with the
capability for higher data rates.
The most important change is the new modulation scheme.
In GSM and GPRS, the GMSK modulation scheme was used. In
GMSK modulation, only one bit per symbol is used.
In an EDGE network, octagonal phase-shift keying (8-PSK)
modulation is used which enables a threefold higher gross data
rate of 59.2 kbps per radio time slot by transmitting three bits per
symbol.
GMSK is a constant-amplitude modulation while 8-PSK has
variations in the amplitude.
This amplitude variation changes the radio performance
characteristics, so hardware changes in the base stations are
mandatory.
2.5G EDGE Network
Planning
The EDGE System
Third Generation (3G) Sys
Broadband for Fixed Mobile
230
Convergence
231
World
IS-41, also known as ANSI-41, is a mobile, cellular telecommunications system
standard to support mobility management by enabling the networking of switches .
IMEI International Mobile Equipment Identity
Cellular Generations
First
Analog, circuit-switched (AMPS)
Second
Digital, circuit-switched (GSM, D-AMPS) 10 Kbps
Advanced second
Digital, circuit switched, Internet-enabled (WAP)
10 Kbps
2.5
Digital, packet-switched, TDMA (GPRS, EDGE)
40-400 Kbps
Third
Digital, packet-switched, wideband CDMA (UMTS, cdmaX)
0.4 2 Mbps
Fourth
Data rate 100 Mbps; achieves telepresence
What is 3G?
Any standard that provided mobile users with the
performance of ISDN or better (144kbps).
Some 2.5G standards, such as GPRS and IS-95b
might be able to do this, but only under optimal
conditions.
Where does the extra capacity come from?

Extra spectrum
New modulation techniques - They tend to be
based on CDMA rather than TDMA, because of its
ability to add more users without reconfiguration.
Planned 3G Data Rates
144 kbps was the absolute minimum.
Same as B-rate ISDN, which makes up a large proportion of
ordinary telephone wires throughout Europe, especially
Germany.
384 kpbs was the ideal capacity.

It corresponds to H-rate ISDN, and often used for video-
conferencing.
2 Mbps was the capacity that should be

achievable inside a building. It corresponds to a
European P-rate ISDN line, which is usually a fiber-optic,
carrying 30 phone lines - parallel to NA's T1.
3G
3rd Generation Network was developed to:

Offer high speed data
Somewhere between 144Kbps to >2Gbps
Offer multimedia connectivity to mobile
subscribers
IMT-2000 Standard developed (International
Mobile Telecommunications Standard
developed by ITU (International
Telecommunications Union)
3G
Three technologies are able to fulfill the

requirements of IMT 2000:
CDMA2000 (Code Division Multiplex Access)
UMTS (Universal Mobile
Telecommunications System
EDGE for 3G
3G CDMA2000
CDMA2000 Variants:
1X
1XEV-DO
1XEV-DV
3X
1XEV specification developed by 3GPP2
(Third Generation Partnership Project 2)
Also known as High Rate Packet Data Air
Interface Specification
Uses 5MHz spectrum to achieve 2 to 4Mbps
3G - UMTS
UMTS uses W-CDMA (Wideband

CDMA)
W-CDMA succeeds GSM (2G)
W-CDMA is air interface, while
UMTS is complete stack of communications
protocol
UMTS uses two 5MHz channels per connection
1885 2025 MHz channels uplink
2110 2200 MHz channels downlink
3G - UMTS
UMTS Network Architecture

Three interacting domains:
Core Network (CN)
UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network
(UTRAN)
User Equipment (UE)
3G - UMTS
Third-generation UMTS (universal terrestrial

mobile system) networks have a predominance
of data traffic, unlike GSM networks.
The rate at which this data traffic can move will
be significantly higher than that offered by
GSM/GPRS/EDGE networks.
For this reason, the third-generation UMTS
networks are fundamentally different from the
existing GSM systems.
IMT-2000
3G systems first planned in 1992, when the ITU (International
Telecommunications Union) realized that mobile communications
was playing an increasingly important role.
The project was called IMT-2000 (International Mobile
Telecommunications). The '2000' had three meanings:
- Year 2000, when the ITU hoped the system would become
available
- Data rates of 2000kbps (2M)
- Frequencies in the 2000MHz range, which ITU wanted to
make a global standard.
None of these goals were realized.
- 1999 prototypes were the size of a truck
- The data rate is possible, but only under optimal conditions.
Most importantly, in terms of global standards, not every country
has agreed to the requested frequencies. Europe and Asian
countries have, but the US has made no spectrum available at all
for IMT-2000.
3G Architecture
3G networks serve a different purpose to

earlier networks, and major changes from
previous network types are:
maximum user bit rates up to 384 kbps

efficient handover between different operators
and technologies (e.g. GSM and UMTS)
an ability to deliver requested bandwidth
an ability to deliver different services (both CS
and PS) with the required quality.
3G Service Classes
Voice
Still 'killer app'.
Voicemail - eventually integrated fully with email
through computerized voice recognition.
Messaging
Extension of paging
Combined with Internet email.
Will allow attachments
Can also be used for payment and electronic ticketing
Switched Data
To allow compatibility with legacy equipment.
Such as dial-up connections and fax
3G Service Classes
contd.
Medium Multimedia - High downstream data rate for
Web surfing
Collaboration
Games
Location-based maps
High Multimedia
Very high-speed Internet access
High-definition video
CD-quality audio on demand
Interactive High Multimedia

Fairly high quality videoconferencing or videophones
Being called 'telepresence'.
Data Rates for
Services
Upgrading to 3G
Single Global Standard not possible
Choices...
Two main types of CDMA,
and a third based on TDMA
The main reason for the dispute is whether or not to

maintain compatibility with existing systems
Existing operators need to deploy an improvement on their

existing system to avoid loss of income. They can...
Add packet-switching capabilities
Improved modulation techniques
Keep existing cell sizes and channel structure.
This gradual route limits their options:

in particular 2G systems are based on TDMA, so
direct upgrades must be TDMA compatible
Upgrading to 3G
Figure 5.1 goes here

What are the Choices?
W-CDMA
Wideband CDMA
TD-CDMA
Time Division W-CDMA
UMTS
Universal Mobile Telecommunications System
CDMA2000
Upgrade from cdmaOne
EDGE
Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution
W-CDMA
Wideband CDMA
- the system favored by most operators able to obtain new
spectrum.
- designed to allow handovers to GSM
- but GSM networks cannot be upgraded to W-CDMA,
though the GPRS backbone can be reused
It uses a 5MHz channel bandwidth

- 25x greater than GSM's 200kHz
- will allow higher data rates in low usage periods. Chipping
code size varies from 4 to 128 bits, so user bandwidth
can vary depending on signal strength.
Allows up to about 4Mbps per channel, exceeding

IMT-2000 requirements.
UMTS
Universal Mobile Telecommunications System
The European planned W-CDMA standard to replace GSM

UMTS Forum - industry and government group formed (1996)
Before Europe could move on the UMTS proposals (bureaucratic
problems), Japan picked it up - NTT DoCoMo and J-Phone
Both trials (Europe and Japan) began in 2000 and hope to be
commercial by 2002.
DoCoMo defined three ambitious applications

8kbps Voice
64kbps video
384kbps Intelligent Transport System
Japan's system ultimately eclipsed the European development, and

when the British Government was auctioning its 3G spectrum, it
even went so far as to break Europen Union rules by telling its
licensees to base their services on W-CDMA rather than UMTS.
EDGE
Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution
The only 3G system that is based on TDMA

rather than CDMA.
Intended to be the upgrade to GSM - Compatible
with UMTS, since UMTS can hand over calls to
GSM
Not designed to be a competitor for CDMA-
based 3G technologies. was intended as a
stopgap until UMTS was out.
But.. EDGE was adopted by the UWCC (Universal
Wireless Communications Consortium), a group
representing the American TDMA industry.
Working with the GSM Association, they
developed a way to migrate D-AMPS to EDGE.
Is GSM the Future
System?
GSM is the most likely candidate for 2G worldwide adoption
as an ultimate universal cellular technology standard
GPRS/EDGE is most easily co-supported in the same base
system with GSM
EDGE Compact strategy, if carried out, will migrate GSM
technology into the North American 800 MHz band, as well
as other GSM radio bands elsewhere
3G technology, theoretically able to provide up to 2 Mbit/s,
may prove to be too costly to be popular.
3G allows you to view a movie like Gone With the
Wind on your handset or mobile PC, or download a
large data base.
GPRS/EDGE allows you to see a complicated web page
with no perceptible delay on your handset or mobile PC.
GPRS/EDGE is likely to be more cost effective for users
needing higher bit rates up to ~384 kbit/s
From GSM to UMTS
PACKET
SW ITCHED UMTS = Universal
kbit/s Mobile Telecomm
System
2000 EDGE = Enhanced
BUILT ON TOP UMTS
WCDMA
Data Rates for GSM
384 OF GSM Evolution
8 PSK
EDGE VoIP
GPRS = General
170 Packet Radio System
GMSK
GPRS HSCSD = High Speed
64 Circuit Switched Data
43.2 GMSK
HSCSD
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
TECHNOLOGY CIRCUIT
SW ITCHED
SOURCE: HPY
3G
Third Generation of mobile phones

Standard that supports data transfer greater
than 2 Mbps.
IEEE 802.11 is not a 3G standard
Wide area cellular networks that support
data-intensive applications.
Not just an improvement of 2G networks.
Requires new equipment and new frequency
bandwidths.
UMTS
UMTS Universal Mobile Telephone System
Most popular 3G wireless standard.
Combines the infrastructure of the GSM
network with superior technology of the CDMA
air interface
UMTS was originally a European standard.
Widely adopted in Japan
Approx. complete deployment by the end of 2006.
3G - UMTS
Uses W-CDMA
5 MHz of bandwidth for each channel.
Several thousand users can be supported on
each cell site.
Offers 11 Mbps download speeds in theory.
Uplink speeds are much slower
Meaning, that you wouldnt want your cell phone to
be a web server.
Speeds for moving devices are also slower.
Most users are finding download throughput of
about 384 Kbps.
However, this is still much faster than the 14.4 Kbps
optimally that GSM offered.
Evolution from GSM/CDMA
to UMTS
There are several nice steps from GSM

to UMTS, with the wide rollout of GPRS
and EDGE.
However, to convert to UMTS, the
network needs to be reengineered from
the ground up.
Actually uses the lower 3 layers of the OSI
model.
Why Evolve
Killer App Video Telephony

Never realized.
What people do use (at least in Japan):
MP3 downloads.
Potential good applications:
TV on a cellphone.
Other Applications
Computer / PDA replacement
Blackberry
Pager replacement
Videoconferencing
Newspaper
Diary
MySpace
Credit Card replacement.
Heightened security?
UMTS Problems
Web wasnt designed for a 2 inch by 3 inch
screen.
Inputting information is much more difficult.
Voice recognition would help.
Overweight handsets with poor battery life.
Poor coverage in the US.
To support full motion video on demand, base
stations will need to setup every .5 miles, which
isnt feasible in rural areas.
Because it is so data intensive.
3G Network
Architecture
3G
3rd Generation Network was developed to:

Offer high speed data
Somewhere between 144Kbps to >2Gbps
Offer multimedia connectivity to mobile
subscribers
IMT-2000 Standard developed
(International Mobile Telecommunications
Standard developed by ITU (International
Telecommunications Union)
3G
Three technologies are able to fulfill the

requirements of IMT 2000:
CDMA2000 (Code Division Multiplex
Access)
UMTS (Universal Mobile
Telecommunications System
EDGE for 3G
3G CDMA2000
CDMA2000 Variants:
1X
1XEV-DO
1XEV-DV
3X
1XEV specification developed by 3GPP2
(Third Generation Partnership Project 2)
Also known as High Rate Packet Data Air
Interface Specification
Uses 5MHz spectrum to achieve 2 to 4Mbps
3G - UMTS
UMTS uses W-CDMA (Wideband CDMA)

W-CDMA succeeds GSM (2G)
W-CDMA is air interface, while
UMTS is complete stack of communications
protocol
UMTS uses two 5MHz channels per
connection
1885 2025 MHz channels uplink
2110 2200 MHz channels downlink
3G - UMTS
UMTS Network Architecture

Three interacting domains:
Core Network (CN)
UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network
(UTRAN)
User Equipment (UE)
3G - UMTS
Third-generation UMTS (universal
terrestrial mobile system) networks have
a predominance of data traffic, unlike
GSM networks.
The rate at which this data traffic can
move will be significantly higher than that
offered by GSM/GPRS/EDGE networks.
For this reason, the third-generation
UMTS networks are fundamentally
different from the existing GSM systems.
3G Architecture
3G networks serve a different purpose to
earlier networks, and major changes from
previous network types are:
maximum user bit rates up to 384 kbps

efficient handover between different operators
and technologies (e.g. GSM and UMTS)
an ability to deliver requested bandwidth
an ability to deliver different services (both CS
and PS) with the required quality.
3G Architecture
3G Architecture
Let us try to understand some principle

that would be of use in designing a
network capable of giving the desired
performance.
WCDMA (wide-band code-division multiple
access) technology has emerged as the
preferred and most adopted technology
for the third-generation air interface.
3G Architecture
Air interface technology has changed, so

there are some major differences between
the WCDMA and GSM air interfaces:
The WCDMA system supports higher bit rates, so
a large bandwidth of 5 MHz is used as compared
to 200 kHz in GSM.
Packet data scheduling in WCDMA is load-based,
while in GSM/GPRS it is time-slot based.
Theoretically, only one frequency channel is used
in WCDMA, while GSM uses many frequency
channels.
3G Architecture
The limited bandwidth of 5 MHz is sufficient

for radio network design.
Multipath diversity is possible with RAKE receivers, while
in GSM techniques like frequency hopping are used for
(frequency) diversity.
Quality control in WCDMA is done using RRM
(Radio Resource Management) algorithms,
while in GSM it was done by implementing various
techniques such as frequency planning.
Users/cells/channels are separated by codes
instead of time or frequency.
3G Architecture
Service Classes
In a 3G network, mobile equipment will be able to
establish and maintain multiple connections
simultaneously.
The network will also allow efficient cooperation
between applications with diverse quality of service
(QoS) requirements, as well as adaptive applications
that will function within a wide range of QoS settings.
From the users' perspective, third generation
networks will be able to give high quality for many
services.
3G Architecture
Service Classes
This means that all the sections of the network
RAN and CN will be trying to achieve these quality
standards (from the users' perspective and
defined by the ITV).
The quality can defined by two main parameters:
guaranteed and maximum bit rate (kbps) possible
permissible delays (ms).
3G Architecture
Service Classes
Both single-media and multi-media services will be
handled in the third-generation networks.
Based on the QoS criteria, multi-media services have been
further classified as:
conversational
streaming
interactive
background.
3G Architecture
Conversational Service Class

is for applications like speech.
It is the most delay-sensitive of the four classes.
A typical example of this class is video
telephony, voice-over-IP (VolP).
In this class the delay is based on the human
perception of the application, hence has strict
requirements for quality.
3G Architecture
Streaming Service Class

refers to traffic flow that is steady and continuous.
It is server-to-user type.
The most common example in this class is the
Internet.
In 3G networks, the Internet will be faster because
a user will be able to see data before it is
completely downloaded.
There are two components of this class:
messaging and
retrieval.
A typical example is downloading of streaming
videos (e.g. news).
3G Architecture
Interactive Service Class

Web browsing is a typical example of the
interactive class.
In this case the user requests data from a remote
entity (e.g. a server).
Location-based services are an example of this
class.
A user will be able to access information like
bus and train timetables,
flight schedules, and
any local data that might be useful.
3G Architecture
Interactive Service Class

Short messages, file transfers, etc., come into the
background class.
Nearly all the traffic that does not fall under the
first three categories is included, such as e-mail.
This class of service has the least stringent quality
of service requirement of all the four classes.
3G Architecture
Elements of a UMTS Network
User Equipment (UE)
The mobile terminal is called user equipment. The basic
principles remain the same as GSM, but with the addition

of the capability to handle data calls.
User equipment can be divided into three parts, USIM, ME
and TE, as shown below.

3G Architecture

User Equipment (UE)
The USIM card (also known as SIM) contains authentication
information and associated algorithms, encryptions and
subscriber-related information.
In contrast, the mobile equipment (ME) is user-independent.
The Terminal equipment (TE) is responsible for termination
of the entire control and user-plane bearer with the help of
the ME.
3G Architecture

Base Station (BS)
The base station is also known as 'node B' in a UMTS radio
network.
It is more complex than the base station of a GSM network.
Its functions include
handover channel management,

base-band conversion (TX and RX),
channel encoding and decoding,
interfacing to other network elements, etc.
3G Architecture
Base Station (BS)
3G Architecture

Base Station (BS)
Amplifiers and Filters
This unit consists of signal amplifiers and antenna

filters.
The amplifiers are used amplify the signal coming from
to
the transceiver and going towards the RF antenna (the

downlink signal),
while the filters select the required frequencies coming
in from the RF antenna (the uplink signal) and amplify
the signals for further processing before sending them to
the receiver part of the TRX.
3G Architecture

Base Station (BS)
Transceiver
The TRX is capable of transmitting and receiving

signals, by handling uplink and downlink traffic.
It consists of one transmitter and one or more
receiver.
3G Architecture

Base Station (BS)
Modulation/Demodulation and Spreading Unit
This unit is responsible for modulating the signal in

the downlink direction and demodulating in the
uplink direction.
It is responsible for summing and multiplexing the
signals and also processing the signals.
This unit contains the digital signal processors that
are responsible for coding and decoding signals.
3G Architecture

Base Station (BS)
Network Interface Unit
This unit acts as an interface between the BS

and the transmission network or any other
network element, such as co-sited cross-connect
equipment.
3G Architecture

Radio Network Controller (RNC)
is similar to the BSC in GSM/GPRS networks, but more
complicated and has more interfaces to handle.

The RNC performs radio resource and mobility
management functions such as

handovers,
admission control,
power control,
load control, etc.
3G Architecture

Radio Network Controller (RNC)
In fact the RNC plays a dual role in a WDCMA radio network,
which should be understood from a network planning

perspective.
A radio network controller can be SRNC (serving RNC) or DRNC
(drifting RNC).
From one mobile, if the RNC terminates both the data
and related signalling then it is called the serving
RNC.
If the cell that is used by this UE is controlled by an
RNC other than the SRNC, then it is called the DRNC
(Drift RNC).
3G Architecture
Radio Interface Protocol Architecture
Taking the OSI model as a reference the first three
layers of the WDCMA radio interface protocols are
needed for the functioning (set-up, release,
configuration) of the radio network bearer services.
3G Architecture

Layer 1 is the physical layer, the actual medium of
transfer.
Planning engineers should note that this layer is not
just a 'physical medium' but should also be able to
perform certain functions.
The main functions of layer 1 include RF processing,
modulation/demodulation of the physical channels,
multiplexing/demultiplexing of the physical channels,
error detection and correction, rate matching, power
control, synchronisation, etc.
3G Architecture

Layer 2 is the link layer.
It is required because of the need to allocate minimum
resources for a constantly changing data rate.

It has two main sub-layers within itself:
RLC and
MAC.
3G Architecture

There are two other layers -called the 'packet-data
convergence protocol' (PDCP) and 'broadcast
-multicast control' (BMC) - but they exist only in the
user plane.
3G Architecture

The MAC (medium access control) layer in an entity that
is responsible for the mapping of the logical channels to
the transport channels.
It provides data transfer services on the logical
channels.
It is an interface between L1 and L3, provides functions
like multiplexing and demultiplexing of packet data
units to/from the physical layer.
The MAC layer is also responsible for measurements
related to traffic volume on the logical channels and
further reporting to layer 3.
3G Architecture

There are three modes of configuring an RLC by layer 3:
transparent mode (no protocol overhead added),

unacknowledged mode (no re-transmission
protocol in used, so data delivery is not
guaranteed), and
acknowledged mode (a re-transmission protocol is
used and data delivery is guaranteed).
Introduction
3G LTE (Long-Term Evolution) - an attempt to bring 4G

technology into 3G spectrum
Reason: challenge other advanced technologies (like WiMAX)

meeting high data rate service demands
Cellular system advantages

Wide deployment
Mobility Support
3G Evolution
Trends of Mobile Technologies
The way to LTE: 3 main 3G
limitations
1. The maximum bit rates still are factor of 20 and more
behind the current state of the systems like 802.11n and
802.16e/m.
2. The latency of user plane traffic (UMTS: >30 ms) and of
resource assignment procedures (UMTS: >100 ms) is too big
to handle traffic with high bit rate variance efficiently.
3. The terminal complexity for WCDMA or MCCDMA
systems is quite high, making equipment expensive, resulting
in poor performing implementations of receivers and
inhibiting the implementation of other performance
enhancements.
3G LTE Targeted features
High data rates
100 Mbps in DL (for 20 MHz band) Efficiency 5 bps/Hz
50 Mbps in UL (for 20 MHz band) Efficiency 3.5 bps/Hz
Low Latency
Between terminal and Radio control device (RAN): < 10 ms
Recovery from idle mode: < 50 ms
From standby mode: < 100 ms
Mobility
15 km/h optimized performance
120 km/h high performance
350 km/h (or 500 km/h) establish communication
Channel Bandwidth
1.25 MHz, 5MHz, 10 MHz, 15 MHz and 20 MHz
Standardization
LTE is the latest standard in the mobile network technology

tree that previously p y realized the GSM/EDGE and
UMTS/HSxPA network technologies that now account for
over 85% of all mobile subscribers. LTE will ensure 3GPPs
competitive edge over other cellular technologies.
3GPP work on the Evolution of the 3G Mobile System
started in November 2004.
Specifications scheduled finalized by the end of December
2009.
Currently, standardization in progress in the form of Rel9
and Rel10.
Motivation
for LTE
Need for higher data rates and greater spectral efficiency
Can be achieved with HSDPA/HSUPA
and/or new air interface defined by 3GPP LTE
Need for Packet Switched optimized system
Evolve UMTS towards packet only system
Need for high quality of services
Use of licensed frequencies to guarantee quality
of services
Alwayson experience (reduce control plane
latency significantly)
Reduce round trip delay
Need for cheaper infrastructure
Simplify architecture reduce number of network
elements
Targets of LTE:
reduced delays, in terms of both connection
establishment and transmission latency;
increased user data rates;
increased cell-edge bit-rate, for uniformity of service
provision;
reduced cost per bit, implying improved spectral
efficiency;
greater flexibility of spectrum usage, in both new and
pre-existing bands;
simplified network architecture;
seamless mobility, including between different radio-
access technologies;
reasonable power consumption for the mobile terminal.
LTE Performance Requirement
Data Rate:
Instantaneous downlink peak data p rate of 100Mbit/s
in a 20MHz downlink spectrum (i.e. 5 bit/s/Hz)
Instantaneous uplink peak data rate of 50Mbit/s in a
20MHz uplink spectrum (i.e. 2.5 bit/s/Hz)
Cell range
5 km optimal size
30km sizes with reasonable performance
up to 100 km cell sizes supported with acceptable
performance
Cell capacity
up to 200 active users per cell(5 MHz) (i.e., 200
active data clients)
LTE Performance Requirements .
Mobility
Optimized for low mobility(p y(015km/h) but
supports high speed
Latency
user plane < 5ms
control plane < 50 ms
Improved spectrum efficiency
Improved broadcasting
IPoptimized
Scalable bandwidth of 20, 15, 10, 5, 3 and 1.4MHz
Coexistence with legacy standards
Input to LTE
Network operator requirements for next

generation mobile systems were formulated by
the Next Generation Mobile Networks (NGMN)
alliance of network operators, which served as
an additional reference for the development
and assessment of the LTE design.
Operator-driven requirements will also guide
the development of the next phase of LTE,
namely LTE-Advanced.
MIMO
LTE Targets are based on Use of MIMO
(Multiple Input/Multiple Output Antennae):
Multiple antenna technology allows exploitation
of the spatial-domain as another new dimension.
This becomes essential in the quest for higher
spectral efficiencies.
With the use of multiple antennas the
theoretically achievable spectral efficiency scales
linearly with the minimum of the number of
transmit and receive antennas employed in
suitable radio propagation environments.
MIMO
LTE Targets are based on Use of MIMO (Multiple

Input/Multiple Output Antennae):
Multiple antenna technology opens the door to a
large variety of features, but not all of them easily
deliver their theoretical promises when it comes to
implementation in practical systems.
Multiple antennas can be used in a variety of ways,
mainly based on three fundamental principles
MIMO
Multiple antennas can be used in a variety of ways,
mainly based on three fundamental principles:
a. Diversity gain: Use of the space-diversity provided by
the multiple antennas to improve the robustness of the
transmission against multipath fading.
b. Array gain: Concentration of energy in one or more
given directions via precoding or beamforming.
Allows multiple users located in different directions to be served
simultaneously (so-called multi-user MIMO).
c. Spatial multiplexing gain: Transmission of multiple
signal streams to a single user on multiple spatial layers
created by combinations of the available antennas.
MIMO
Possible Array Arrangements:
(a) diversity gain;

(b) array gain;
(c) spatial multiplexing gain
Radio Interface
Radio Interface in 4G is:
Packet switched
3G and earlier rely on circuit switched connection-
oriented protocols on radio interface
System latency is improved by reducing packet
duration from 2ms used in 3G HSDPA to 1 ms
Other optimizations over 3G UMTS WCMA:
adaptive scheduling in both the frequency and spatial
dimensions;
adaptation of the MIMO configuration including the selection
of the number of spatial layers transmitted simultaneously;
link adaptation of modulation and code-rate, including the
number of transmitted codewords;
several modes of fast channel state reporting
What are the LTE
challenges?
Comparison of Throughput and Latency
Scalable Bandwidth
Increased Spectral Efficiency
Reduced Network Complexity
Multiple Access Technologies
MIMO
Advanced Antenna Techniques
MIMO - Beamforming
3G Long Term Evolution
3G LTE Requirements and Targets
Defined in 3GPP
Very high data rates
Peak data rates: More than 100 Mbps (downlink) / More
than 50 Mbps (uplink)
Improved cell-edge user throughput
Very low latency
Less than 10 ms (User-plane RAN RTT)
Less than 50 ms (Control-plane dormant-to-active
transition)
Very high spectral efficiency
Spectrum flexibility
Deployable in a wide-range of spectrum allocations of
different sizes
Both paired and unpaired spectrum
Cost-effective migration from current 3G systems
3G LTE Key Radio access features
3G LTE Spectrum flexibility
3G LTE Bandwidth flexibility
3G LTE Duplex Arrangements
4G Network
Why 4G:
3G is insufficient to support latest
services and applications
Video conferencing
Full motion video
Affordable high speed access
4G is cheaper to deploy than 3G
Higher bandwidth of 100Mbps and more
Greater mobility
Ability to integrate with WLAN and WAN
Requirements for 4G development:
Transportation gets faster:

Trains moving at >200km/h meaning handoff
needs to be faster, 3G cant handle that
Downloading of high capacity content:
Videos, music, on-line games
All at greater QoS than 3G
4G is not a new radio interface nor a new
technology, instead
4G is a convergence strategy tying together
existing technologies and combines their
advantages:
Hiper-LAN,
Bluetooth
GPRS
EDGE
WLAN
WiMAX
WiFi
Performance: provides high quality video
services at data speeds exceeding 100Mbps
Bandwidth: average transmission speed
20Mbps, supporting local area hot spots
Interoperability: different standards for 3G
and intranets make interoperability difficult,
4G combines these standards for effortless
roaming and transfer from one network to
another
Technology: therefore 4G assembles existing

Standards, observes them and resembles
convergence rather than new technology
On a network levels, this looks like:
*satellite based means networks with largest coverage which tie together
the smaller networks
4G
Apart from user mobiles, 4G serves terminals,
networks and applications whether mobile or not
Adaptability of features between different
targets (terminations) makes integration
seamless
At rates which are similar or lower than existing
wireless or fixed wireline rates
This spells the death knell to fixed wireline
telephony as we know it
4G
Two types of diversity:
External diversity:
People in different situations, mobile and non-mobile
terminals, similar to diversity of the Internet today
Internal diversity:
Accommodates different interfaces, functions and modes
Interconnection of various networks and load sharing
among them
Spectrum:
4G has to provide bandwidth >20Mbps and
significantly increased amount of traffic
Lower bands are heavily used by existing
mobile operators
Proposed band is between 3GHz and 5GHz
3.4GHZ to 3.6GHz currently used by satellite
communications,
Strongly opposed by satellite operators
Also proposed UMTS 900 (900MHz)
For GSM operators migrating their GSM networks to
4G
ITU-R and other licensing bodies strongly supportive of
UMTS 900
4G
Spectrum:
Allocation and identification of new IMT frequency
bands at the ITU World Radiocommunication
Conference in 2007 (WRC-07), when 72 megahertz of
frequencies in the UHF band were identified for IMT 3G
mobile services
790-862 MHz in Region 1 (Europe, Africa), and in

790-862 MHz in Region 3 (Asia-Pacific), and
698-806 MHz in Region 2 (Americas) and in some countries in
Region 3, such as Japan, China, Korea and India.
Coverage (cell radius):
Coverage by base stations decreases due to

higher user number and increased bandwidth
Signals are transmitted at higher bit rates to
compensate for higher noise levels
Because of higher frequencies than 2G or 4G,
propagation loss increases and needs to be
compensated for if operating in the 3 to 5GHz
range
4G
Three Coding Techniques:
OFDM: orthogonal frequency division multiplexing,

similar to 3G
W-OFDM: Wideband OFDM on multiple high speed
radio frequencies allowing for higher security, high
amount of data and more efficient use of
bandwidth
MC-CDMA: OFDM with a CDMA overlay; data is
spread and frequency or time for higher throughput
4G
OFDM in 4G is E-UTRA (Evolved Universal

Terrestrial Radio Access):
Uses OFDMA for the downlink (tower to handset) and
Single Carrier FDMA (SC-FDMA) for the uplink
Employs MIMO with up to four antennas per station.
Channel coding scheme for transport blocks is turbo
coding and a contention-free quadratic permutation
polynomial (QPP) turbo code internal interleaver
4G
OFDM in 4G is E-UTRA (Evolved Universal

Terrestrial Radio Access):
OFDM has a link spectral efficiency greater than
CDMA, and when combined with modulation formats
such as 64QAM, and techniques such as MIMO, E-
UTRA has proven to be considerably more efficient
than W-CDMA with HSDPA and HSUPA
For MIMO operation, a distinction is made between
Single user MIMO, for enhancing one users data
throughput, and
Multi user MIMO for enhancing the cell throughput.
4G
Uses MIMO (Multiple Input/Multiple Output)
technology on air interface:
MIMO increases link capacity by spreading data
over several multipath signals
MIMO uses multiple antennae to transmit and
receive multipath signals carrying different bits of
data (similar to RAKE in 3G which operates only
on the receive side though)
Benefits are:
Increased capacity
Better throughput
Improved signal quality
Lower power consumption than in 3G
High data rates
4G is all IP even on the air interface
Leads to greater efficiency of network

resources
Can accommodate non-IP networks and
devices with appropriate interface devices
Requires NGN topology in the core network
4G Evolution
Migration path from 2G is possible, however
requires more work than from 3G:
2G requires more IP interface devices than 3G
2G, or 3G network, is treated like any other network
connecting to 4G
Trick is to find out whether users are interested in 4G
4G can be a small network connecting multiple lower
level networks
No need to discontinue 2G or 3G operations
4G is basically 3G on steroids using higher frequency
bands
Migration path from 2G is possible, however
requires more work than from 3G:
Experts expect that mobile WiMAX and LTE

subscriptions will represent only a miniscule
portion of the total 2G/3G/4G subscriptions over
the next five years.
Even in 2013, they expect that GSM/GPRS/EDGE
will account for nearly 2.8 billion subscriptions,
representing more than 55 percent of the total 4.8
billion 2G/3G/4G subscriptions expected in 2013
Two Competing Path:
1.Mobile WiMAX
Driven by IEEE, a US based wireless standards body
2.UMTS LTE (Long Term Evolution)

Driven by 3GPP2 (3 rd Generation Partnership Project
2)
At this point in time UMTS LTE is

Preferred by 95% of cellular carriers worldwide
Looks like it will become the evolution path to 4G
Two Competing Path:
1.Mobile WiMAX
Is an evolution from fixed wireline WiMAX local
access with nomadic mobility based on 802.16e
WiMAX is currently experimenting with full
mobility
Limited test networks are in operation
Would replace most of existing cellular

infrastructure if chosen as the evolution path to
4G
Intel is leading promoter of WiMAX evolution path
Two Competing Path:
Key features of Mobile WiMAX
up to 70 Mbps download speed

up to 70 Mbps upload speed
Actual speeds of 10 Mbps achievable @ 10km
from access point
Two Competing Path:
2.UMTS LTE
Is an evolution from GSM and 3G UMTS to 4G
Compared with WiMAX has backing of 95% of

worldwide cellular carriers
Standard development is lagging WiMAX
Standards
Would utilize WiMAX as local access network as it
would WiFi and other local access technologies
Major carriers are promoters of UMTS LTE evolution
Two Competing Path:
Key Features of UMTS LTE
4 G mobile internet
up to 100 Mbps download speed
up to 50 Mbps upload speed
trials started in 2008
Will be the next UMTS standard
Mobile Service
Evolution
Mobile Services
Mobile service evolution:
Mobile Services
Mobile Service Evolution
Users dont care about technology
Want services which fulfill their needs at
affordable prices
Want services which are easy (intuitive) to use
Services should be provided in a sophisticated

and unobtrusive manner, cheap enough for
users to use them without thinking too much
about the cost.*
* ITU Telecom World 2006

Mobile Services
Mobile Service Evolution
Cellular service evolution proceeds from basic
services (voice/data) to intelligent services
(content/applications)
4G promises full convergence of all telecom
infrastructures and capabilities
Capabilities will eventually surpass those of
fixed wireline infrastructure
At that time full convergence of fixed wireline
and wireless networks is achieved
Questions & Answers
KEN 3189

Evolution of 1G To 4G

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INTRODUCTION

To provide participants with a

Realities of a Changing Telecon

Full mobile wireless

Internet led to:

For most of these it will be their first phone

Most of this growth will happen on

Challenge for fixed-wireline service providers:

Untethered by fixed infrastructure

Latest Generation 4G allows mobile service

ITU Telecom World 06 (Day 1) says:

ITU Telecom World 06 (Day 1) says:

Mobile networks are identified by technology

2G GSM and VAS (Value Added Services):

2.5G GSM GPRS (General Packet Radio

2.5G GSM EDGE (Enhanced Data rates in

3G UMTS: WCDMA (Wideband Code

4G All-IP (Internet Protocol):

4G All-IP (Internet Protocol):

1G through 3G, including 2G, 2.5G GPRS and

3GPP2 (3rd Generation Partnership Project):

3GPP2 (3rd Generation Partnership Project 2):

1% is below 300GHz fitting into Radio Spectrum

Requires a medium (fibre optics) to be used in

Source: Louis E. Keiner, Coastal Carolina University

Lower frequencies: Higher frequencies:

Follow contour of Earth Require Line of Sight

Use of the Radio Spectrum is hotly contested

Source: WiMAX Forum A New Broadband Wireless Technology

ITU Band Designation Frequency Wavelength

1 ELF 3 - 30 Hz 100,000 km - 10,000 km

2 SLF 30 - 300 Hz 10,000 km - 1000 km

3 ULF 300 - 3000 Hz 1000 km - 100 km

4 VLF 3 - 30 kHz 100 km - 10 km

6 MF 300 - 3000 kHz 1 km - 100 m

8 VHF 30 - 300 MHz 10 m - 1 m

9 UHF 300 - 3000 MHz 1 m - 10 cm

11 EHF 30 - 300 GHz 1 cm - 1 mm

Naturally produced sounds

Analog Modulation Techniques:

Amplitude and Phase modulation:

The principal classes of modulation are:

Phase-shift keying (PSK)

Ground wave propagation

Looses energy to the ground

Sky wave propagation

Cover large distances, some signals escape

Source: WRAP, Aerotech Telub.se

Source: Alcatel Microwave Propagation Path Design

Source: Alcatel Microwave Propagation Path Design

Source: Alcatel Microwave Propagation Path Design

Source: Alcatel Microwave Propagation Path Design

>Free Space Loss

Intermodulation noise occurs if signals with

Source: Alcatel Microwave Propagation Path Design

Source: Alcatel Microwave Propagation Path Design

Source: Alcatel Microwave Propagation Path Design

Large radio refractivity gradients are the nemesis for

Source: Alcatel Microwave Propagation Path Design

Source: Alcatel Microwave Propagation Path Design

Multipath Propagation Mechanisms: R Reflection, S Scattering,

Where reflection causes out-of-phase transmissions