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DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS
OF FLUID FLOW
The fundamental differential equations of fluid motion are derived in
this chapter, and we show how to solve them analytically for some
simple flows. More complicated flows, such as the air flow induced
2
by a tornado shown here, cannot be solved exactly.
Objectives
Understand how the differential equation of
conservation of mass and the differential linear
momentum equation are derived and applied
Calculate the stream function and pressure field,
and plot streamlines for a known velocity field
Obtain analytical solutions of the equations of
motion for simple flow fields
3
91 INTRODUCTION
The control volume technique is useful when
we are interested in the overall features of a
flow, such as mass flow rate into and out of the
control volume or net forces applied to bodies.
Differential analysis, on the other hand,
involves application of differential equations of
fluid motion to any and every point in the flow
field over a region called the flow domain.
Boundary conditions for the variables must
be specified at all boundaries of the flow
domain, including inlets, outlets, and walls.
If the flow is unsteady, we must march our
solution along in time as the flow field changes.
To derive a differential
conservation equation, we
imagine shrinking a control
5
volume to infinitesimal size.
Derivation Using the Divergence Theorem
The quickest and most straightforward way to derive the differential form of
conservation of mass is to apply the divergence theorem (Gausss theorem).
6
Derivation Using an
Infinitesimal Control Volume
At locations away from the center of the
box, we use a Taylor series expansion
about the center of the box.
7
The mass flow rate through
a surface is equal to VnA.
8
The divergence
operation in Cartesian
and cylindrical
coordinates. 9
Fuel and air being
compressed by a piston
in a cylinder of an
internal combustion
engine. 10
11
Nondimensional
density as a
function of
nondimensional
time for Example 12
91.
Alternative Form of the
Continuity Equation
13
Continuity Equation in Cylindrical Coordinates
15
Special Case 2:
Incompressible
Flow
17
18
Streamlines for the
converging duct of
Example 92. 19
20
The continuity
equation can be used
to find a missing
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velocity component.
22
Streamlines and velocity profiles for (a) a line vortex flow and
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(b) a spiraling line vortex/sink flow.
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Discussion The final
result is generalnot
limited to Cartesian
coordinates. It applies
to unsteady as well as
steady flows.
stream
function
Curves of constant
are streamlines
of the flow.
28
29
Streamlines for the velocity
field of Example 98; the
value of constant is
indicated for each streamline,
and velocity vectors are
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shown at four locations.
31
32
Streamlines for the
velocity field of Example
99; the value of
constant is indicated
for each streamline.
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The difference in the value of from one
streamline to another is equal to the
volume flow rate per unit width between
the two streamlines.
In the figure, the stream function increases to the left of the flow direction,
regardless of how much the flow twists and turns.
When the streamlines are far apart (lower right of figure), the magnitude of velocity
(the fluid speed) in that vicinity is small relative to the speed in locations where the
streamlines are close together (middle region).
This is because as the streamlines converge, the cross-sectional area between
them decreases, and the velocity must increase to maintain the flow rate between
the streamlines.
35
Streaklines produced by Hele
Shaw flow over an inclined
plate. The streaklines model
streamlines of potential flow
(Chap. 10) over a two-
dimensional inclined plate of the
same cross-sectional shape. 36
Streamlines for free-
stream flow along a wall
with a narrow suction slot;
streamline values are
shown in units of m2/s; the
thick streamline is the
dividing streamline. The
direction of the velocity
vector at point A is
determined by the left-
side convention.
37
38
The Stream Function in Cylindrical Coordinates
41
94 THE DIFFERENTIAL LINEAR MOMENTUM
EQUATIONCAUCHYS EQUATION
44
The gravity vector is not
necessarily aligned with
any particular axis, in
general, and there are
three components of the
body force acting on an
45
infinitesimal fluid element.
Sketch illustrating the surface forces acting in the x-
direction due to the appropriate stress tensor component
on each face of the differential control volume; the blue
dots indicate the center of each face.
46
47
Alternative Form of Cauchys Equation
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Derivation Using
Newtons Second Law
49
95 THE NAVIERSTOKES EQUATION
Introduction
53
The Laplacian operator, shown
here in both Cartesian and
cylindrical coordinates, appears
in the viscous term of the
incompressible NavierStokes
equation. 54
The NavierStokes equation is an
unsteady, nonlinear, secondorder, partial
differential equation.
Equation 960 has four unknowns (three
velocity components and pressure), yet it
represents only three equations (three
components since it is a vector equation).
Obviously we need another equation to
make the problem solvable. The fourth
The NavierStokes equation is the equation is the incompressible continuity
cornerstone of fluid mechanics. equation (Eq. 916). 55
Continuity and NavierStokes Equations
in Cartesian Coordinates
56
Continuity and NavierStokes Equations
in Cylindrical Coordinates
57
An alternative
form for the first
two viscous
terms in the r-
and -
components of
the Navier
Stokes equation.
58
96 DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS
OF FLUID FLOW PROBLEMS
There are two types of problems for which the differential equations (continuity
and NavierStokes) are useful:
Calculating the pressure field for a known velocity field
Calculating both the velocity and pressure fields for a flow of known geometry
and known boundary conditions
A general three-dimensional
but incompressible flow field
with constant properties
requires four equations to
solve for four unknowns. 59
Calculation of the Pressure Field
for a Known Velocity Field
The first set of examples involves calculation of the pressure
field for a known velocity field.
Since pressure does not appear in the continuity equation, we
can theoretically generate a velocity field based solely on
conservation of mass.
However, since velocity appears in both the continuity
equation and the NavierStokes equation, these two
equations are coupled.
In addition, pressure appears in all three components of the
NavierStokes equation, and thus the velocity and pressure
fields are also coupled.
This intimate coupling between velocity and pressure enables
us to calculate the pressure field for a known velocity field.
60
61
62
For a two-dimensional flow
field in the xy-plane, cross-
differentiation reveals
whether pressure P is a
smooth function. 63
64
The velocity field in an incompressible flow is
not affected by the absolute magnitude of
pressure, but only by pressure differences.
Since pressure
appears only as a
gradient in the
incompressible
NavierStokes
equation, the absolute
magnitude of pressure
is not relevantonly
pressure differences
matter.
71
Exact Solutions of the Continuity Boundary Conditions
and NavierStokes Equations
75
A fully developed region of a flow
field is a region where the velocity
profile does not change with
downstream distance. Fully
developed flows are encountered in
long, straight channels and pipes.
Fully developed Couette flow is
shown herethe velocity profile at x2
76
is identical to that at x1.
77
78
For incompressible flow fields without
free surfaces, hydrostatic pressure
does not contribute to the dynamics
of the flow field.
79
The linear velocity
profile of Example 915:
Couette flow between
parallel plates.
80
Stresses acting on a
differential two-
dimensional rectangular
fluid element whose
bottom face is in contact
with the bottom plate of
Example 915.
81
A rotational viscometer; the
inner cylinder rotates at
angular velocity , and a
torque Tapplied is applied, from
which the viscosity of the fluid
is calculated.
82
83
84
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86
87
88
89
90
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92
93
94
95
96
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98
99
100
101
102
Differential Analysis of Biofluid Mechanics Flows
Poiseuille flow approximations hold true for standard pipe flow with most water
systems.
However, when applied to blood flow in the human body, the approximations
must be closely monitored and evaluated for their applicability.
Traditionally as a first-order attempt, cardiovascular fluid dynamists have used
the Poiseuille flow derivation to understand blood flow in arteries.
This can provide the engineer only with a first-order approximation for the
velocity and flow rate.
It is important to examine the main approximations used to arrive at
Poiseuille flow.
Lets retain the basic approximations about the fluid, or blood in this case.
The fluid will remain incompressible, the flow will continue to be laminar, and
gravity remains negligible.
The approximation of fully developed flow will also remain, though in reality this
is not applicable in the cardiovascular system.
Based on only these approximations, this leaves the other main approximations
of steady, parallel, axisymmetric Newtonian flow, and the pipe approximated as
a rigid circular tube.
103
The flow waveform created during ejection from a
ventricular assist device in a mock circulatory loop. This is
similar to the waveform created during left ventricular
ejection.
104
An anatomical figure illustrating
the ascending aorta, aortic
arch, and descending aorta
coming from the left ventricle
(on the backside of the heart in
this view). The illustration
demonstrates how the aorta
moves toward the spinal cord.
105
Therefore, fundamentally to model blood flow through the arteries, the steady
flow approximation is inappropriate, making modeling blood flow as Poiseuille
flow unsuitable for just this one approximation alone. There is a rapid
acceleration and deceleration of flow within a short time period (~300 ms).
With respect to parallel flow and axisymmetric flow, these both can be
invalidated as inappropriate approximations applied to blood flow, by focusing
on one location of the cardiovascular system.
106
107
108
Assuming all values are
the same in the velocity
equations and the pipe is
the same diameter, the
pseudoplastic fluid
causes the velocity
profile to be more blunt
compared to the
parabolic profile
generated for a
Newtonian fluid.
109
Summary
Introduction
Conservation of mass-The continuity equation
Derivation Using the Divergence Theorem
Derivation Using an Infinitesimal Control Volume
Alternative Form of the Continuity Equation
Continuity Equation in Cylindrical Coordinates
Special Cases of the Continuity Equation
The stream function
The Stream Function in Cartesian Coordinates
The Stream Function in Cylindrical Coordinates
The Compressible Stream Function
The differential linear momentum equation-Cauchys
equation
Derivation Using the Divergence Theorem
Derivation Using an Infinitesimal Control Volume
Alternative Form of Cauchys Equation
Derivation Using Newtons Second Law 110
The Navier-Stokes equation
Introduction
Newtonian versus Non-Newtonian Fluids
Derivation of the NavierStokes Equation for
Incompressible, Isothermal Flow
Continuity and NavierStokes Equations in
Cartesian Coordinates
Continuity and NavierStokes Equations in
Cylindrical Coordinates
Differential analysis of fluid flow problems
Calculation of the Pressure Field for a Known
Velocity Field
Exact Solutions of the Continuity and Navier
Stokes Equations
Differential Analysis of Biofluid Mechanics Flows
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