PT10603

PERSONALITI DAN
PERBEZAAN
INDIVIDU

INTELLIGENCE (PART
2)
Introduction
s ability tests are useful predictors
of a wide range of behavioral
outcomes, including occupational
and academic performance, health,
and longevity ??
The Wechsler tests
avid Wechsler was a US psychologist at Columbia
University

n 1917, he had originally worked under the

American Psychological Association / Yerkes
Army initiative and administered & interpreted
intelligence tests that were used to assign army
recruits to military jobs

he Army sent him to England & the University of

London to work with Charles Spearman & Karl
Pearson.
lthough he didnt always agree with
Spearmans view intelligence,
Wechslers first tests were modelled on
Spearmans 2 factor model.

n 1939, he published the first of the

Wechsler tests, the Wechsler-Bellevue
Scale. It was designed & standardised
among a sample of 1500 adults.

n 1955 , he introduced two tests:

1) The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
(WAIS) that had been standardised
among 2000 adults aged between 16-
75
2) The Wechsler Scale for Children (WISC)
for children aged between 5-16 years.
Administered on a one-to-one basis.
Contained a number of subtests to
measure several different aspects of
intelligence (verbal & performance
tests)
 Arithmetic (verbal) - Reasoning
Involves solving problems using mental arithmetic
E.g :Sam had three candy and Joe gave him four
more. How many pieces of candy did Sam have
altogether?
Block design (performance)
The subject is presented with a box of 16 cubes 9
design. Subject is asked to arrange the blocks to
form certain patterns.
Comprehension (verbal)
Involves the participant demonstrating an
understanding of the meaning of words and
sayings and the appropriated response to a
number of scenarios.
E.g. What is the thing to do if you find an
envelope in the street, that is sealed, and
addressed and has a new stamp?
 Digit span (verbal) - memory
The participant is asked to repeat a series of digits
in exact or reverse order (forward or backward).
Digit symbol (performance)
Requires the participants to symbols to numbers.
Information (verbal)
Requires the participants to show general
knowledge of areas such as science, politics,
geography, literature and history.
E.g. Who is the prime minister of Malaysia?
Object assembly (performance)
Requires a number of simple jigsaws to be
completed within a particular time.
 Picture arrangement (performance)
Participants are presented with a series of cards
with a number of pictures. They must arrange
the card to tell a simple story.
Picture completion (performance)
The participants has to complete line drawings of
objects or scenes in which one or two lines are
missing.
Similarities (verbal)
Involves the participants comparing two things
that are alike
E.g :Orange .Banana
Vocabulary (verbal)
Involves asking the participant for definition of
words.
E.g : What does apple mean?
Advantages
A
ll people of all ages could take them
I
ncludes a number of subtests for different
aspects of intelligence & within each subtest
there are a variety of items with a wide range
of difficulty
A
ll the participants are tested on the same items
I
ntroduction of the concept deviation IQ.
 An individual actual score on the
intelligence test relative to the average
scores obtained by others of the same
age on the same intelligence test.
Formula (actual test score expected
score for that age) x 100
This calculation involved 2 further steps to
allow the standardisation in using the
Wechsler IQ test:
1) Determining the expected score for
each particular age
2) Transforming the wide range of scores
& variations among the population to a
standardised form
Intelligence at School &
University
here are different subjects to be taught
in school, different ways of assessing
achievement

lan Kaufman & Elizabeth Lichtenberger

provide a review of key papers that have
looked at the correlation between
general intelligence & school attainment
& achievement.
verage correlation between IQ scores & a
number of school indicators is around r =
.50, suggesting intelligence does predict
performance at school

enis Bratko, Tomas Chamoro-Premuzic &

Zrnka Saks suggested conscientiousness
is the most consistent predictor of
academic achievement
Lead students to be organised, disciplined &
motivated to suceed.
ratko et al., suggested while neuroticism
might cause people to perform badly in
examinations due to their tendency to
worry & be anxious before & during the
examination.

xtraversion is inconsistently associated

with academic achievement because
extraverted people may be less worried &
optimistic about examinations & therefore
perform better in high- pressure situations.
cademic assessment methods are
increasingly focused on continuous
assessment/ coursework assignments
which make academic performance more
dependable on personality than cognitive
ability (Chamorro-Premuzic & Furnham,
2006)

he cognitive ability tests such as g/ IQ are

accurate predictors of students
performance, particularly during primary &
secondary school is consistent with the
increasing significance of personality/ non-
cognitive trait at such academic stages
enopyr (1967)- Cognitive ability (SCAT) is
a more powerful predictor of academic
achievement that social intelligence

illingham (1974)- The graduate record

examination (GRE) correlates
substantially with cognitive ability &
future performance at university

achman et al. (1986)- IQ test better

predictor of primary school grades than
measures of abnormal behavior
Intelligence in the Job

n 1919, Robert Yerkes developed a purpose

measure for the army (the National
Intelligence Test Alpha & Beta Scales)

atarazzo, 1972- ability tests were used to

recruit & train fighter pilots in World War II.

easures of personal discipline are only

modestly correlated with g.
he most compelling evidence for the
importance of g in military settings
derives from a study by O Toole &
Stankov (1992)- the relationship
between IQ scores & non-combat deaths
at the age of 40 in a sample that
included over 2000 Australian veterans

he more complex the job, the more

important & stronger the effects of g
ntellectually demanding jobs are
correlated with ability tests whereas
jobs that do not involve intellectual
tasks correlate lower with IQ.

unter (1984) classified different job

according to establish norms & job
complexity = job analysis
 H
unter (1983) ; Hunter & Hunter (1984)
created the first meta analysis of the
relationship between intelligence & job
performance; training & job performance
mediated & directed effects of g on job
performance= increase with job complexity
C
ognitive ability provides more accurate
estimate of a persons potential for the job
than other psychological/ non-psychological
variables (pg 82)
elationship between personality & job
performance (Hough,1992, Robertson,2001;
Salgado,2003)
Of the 5 factors, conscientiousness & low
neuroticism are consistently related to a number of
indicators of job performance
Of these 2 factors, conscientiousness & neuroticism,
conscientiousness is a better predictor of job
performance
Openness, agreeableness & extraversion are not
related to job performance; occasionally been
related to job performance but much less often &
not consistent
Intelligence, Longevity, &
Health
righter people should be generally healthier &
live longer than their less bright counterparts.

ongitudinal data on the validity of IQ as a

predictor of a variety of social outcomes have
provided compelling evidence for the importance
of g in real life.

ottfredson (2004a) reported associations

between g & physical fitness, low-sugar diet,
low-fat diet, longevity, alcoholism (-ve), infant
mortality (-ve), smoking (-ve), obesity (-ve).
 H
e emphasized the importance of cognitive ability
over & above socioeconomic variables= the
biggest the gap between educated & less educated
individuals.
M
easures of cognitive ability predict health outcomes
even with the same socioeconomic groups
I
ndividuals with higher intelligence seem to make
more efficient & better use of the resources that
are made available to prevent & improve health
problems
he impact of cognitive ability on longevity
is stronger in deprived/ poor social groups
indicating that g moderates the correlation
between socioeconomic status & mortality.

igher socioeconomic status may moderate

the impact of IQ on longevity.

ottfredsons (2004a)=brighter individuals

are more likely to choose healthier diets &
avoid/ give up smoking
igher intelligence provides individuals
with faster, better & more efficient
reasoning & learning ability= better
understanding the causes of good & bad
health.

ognitive ability tests over personality-

personality traits have also been shown
to affect health outcomes
Intelligence & Social Class
a) Individual difference in intelligence
precede & are more stable over time
than socioeconomic status & that
b) Both constructs are highly
intercorrelated
Early demographic studies found that
suburban samples scored lower on IQ
tests than urban ones
Brighter people were more likely to
migrate to cities (Cattell, 1937)
 G
enetic & non- genetic/ environment causes of
socioeconomic differences in IQ.
T
he average correlation between social class
& IQ is approximately .55 & seems to persist
generation after generation (McCall, 1977)
G
enerational in IQ in socioeconomic
status
G
enerational in IQ in socioeconomic
status
he correlation between socioeconomic status & IQ
refers to an overlap of 30% between most measures

f this correlation is corrected for reliability, there is

still an amount of unaccounted variance in
socioeconomic status.

lthough there is a general tendency for people in one

socioeconomic group to obtain a particular type of IQ
scores, the rule does not apply to everybody

his tendency has implications for the relative rather

than absolute number of individuals from x social
class than can be found among y IQ scorers.
n the UK, one way in which
socioeconomic is measured is by the
grading of parents occupations into 5
categories:
Class I: Professional occupations
Class II: Managerial & technical occupations
Class III: Skilled occupations: Manual (M) &
unmanual (U)
Class IV: Partly skilled occupations
Class V: Unskilled occupations
Race Differences in 1Q
F
rom the early 1920s up to present day,
studies have reported consistent differences
between the IQ scores of black & white
individuals (Mackintosh,1998)
I
f some people get higher IQ scores than
others, certain groups will get higher IQ
scores, too.
T
he causes & implications of such differences
that ought to be assessed.
here are 3 majors theoretical positions (origin) of group
differences in IQ & implications.
Genetics Poverty & social inequalities are unchangeable
Environmental Society is unfair towards certain groups
Test bias IQ tests are designed to favor certain groups
hites tend to have larger brains than blacks but
controversial

ushton & Jensen (2005)- race differences in intelligence

are due to brain size & reflect 80% genetic to 20%
environmental influences
Sex Differences in 1Q
Me
n do better at spatial & mathematics ability tests.
W
omen do better at verbal ability tests.
Al
most all pioneers in intelligence testing believed
there were no sex differences in cognitive ability
(Binet, Burt & Terman)
Re
searchers balanced items to cancel out sex
differences
W
echsler (1944) had taken out items that were
biased against women.
en higher IQ score may be a direct consequence
of their larger brain size (Rushton & Ackney,1996)

meta-analyses in sex differences in general

intelligence (d= the effect size of the difference)
If d= .2, then the effect size is small, which means that
the important difference is considered to be small
If d= .5, then the effect size is medium, which means
that the important difference is considered to be medium
If d= .8, then the effect size is large, which means that
the important difference is considered to be large
Decomposing Intelligence

he idea underlying experimental

approaches to intelligence is more
efficient brains should be capable of
faster & more accurate processing

he intelligent nervous system will

respond accurately to incoming signal &
will therefore be able to respond rapidly;
less intelligent will make errors &
respond slowly (Mackintosh,1998)
 There are two tasks:
a) Reaction time: a measure of the speed
of intellectual processing in which a
stimulus is seen until a decision is made
by the participant & a response enacted
b) Inspection time: a measure of the speed
of intellectual processing in which a
stimulus is presented & inspected for a
very short time before being removed
Conclusions
I
Q tests are hardly the only indicator of an individuals
ability to succeed in life but academic performance
I
f people lack confidence, stability & motivation & are
willing to work hard, IQ scores will be a poor
predictor of performance
I
ncomplete picture of the multiple determinants of
individual differences in achievement
I
Q tests were employed to enhance meritocratic
selection & facilitate social mobility
ERIMA KASIH