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PT10603 PERSONALITY AND

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

PERSONALITI PART II
VALIDATING PERSONALITY TRAITS
3 MAIN TOPICS
1. Methodological approaches
to the study of personality
2. Validation of personality
traits as predictors of real-life
outcomes
3. Alternatives approaches to
psychometric approach to
personality
1. Introduction
This chapter will examine the
relationship of personality
with:
Education achievement
Job performance
Anti social behavior
Interpersonal relation
Happiness
Itwould be impossible to
understand the relation
between personality & any
other construct without having
statistical analyses used
2. TESTING PERSONALITY
THEORIES
The beginnings of personality
research were characterized by the use
of precarious methods of data collection.
Personality theories were often derived from
introspection, observations & case
studies.

Modern approaches to personality can


be distinguished from other more
theoretical/ speculative approaches in
terms of their systematic gathering &
analyses of empirical data.
psychometric approach depend
on large datasets, generated
by self- report inventories.

The relationship between


different variables can be
examined through diverse
statistical tests - enables
researchers to validate/ test
personality theories.
2.1 Correlation
A statistical test
Assess the extent to which 2
variables are related to each others,
e.g. traits & behavior
Represented by r, indicating the
degree to which 2 variables are
related
Called Pearson Correlation
Takes its name from Karl Pearson

Pearsons statistical tests


provide robust scientific
instruments for the study of
individual differences
Measure of the extent to which 2
variables (eg. x & y) are interrelated /
contrast with each other.

To calculate the correlation between x & y,


formula can be used (pg 67)
= mean (the average value, obtained by
adding up all scores & dividing them by the
number of cases)
S = standard deviation (a comparative
indicator of a persons score against the general
population)
Central tendency measures of the average
which indicates what constitutes a typical value .
Correlationcoefficient- determine the
strength of the relationship between two
variables & whether this relation is
positive/ negative
E.g. two variables (amount of chocolate eaten &
weight)
It is thought that chocolate contains a lot of fat & that
eating a lot of fat will increase weight.
Expected that people who eat a lot of chocolate would
also weigh a lot.
If this were true, then the amount of chocolate you
eat & your weigh would be positively correlated
(The more chocolate you eat, the more you should
weight)
Correlation coefficient can take
values ranging from +1.00 through
0.00 to -1.00.

A correlation of +1.00 would be perfect


positive relationship
A correlation of 0.00 would be no
relationship
A correlation of -1.00 would be a perfect
negative relationship
2.2. Regression analysis
Introduced by Pearson
When there are only 2 variables, no
different between correlational &
regression analyses
When more variables - Statistical
technique of regression enables us to
predict 1 variable (the criterion) by
another set o variables (the
predictors)
Types of regression:
logistic, poisson & supervised
Predictive validity of personality
regard different outcomes, e.g. :
social & antisocial behavior,
educational & job performance,
romantic relationships
health)
Linear regression: Y= a+b x X
a (intercept)
b (regression coefficient)
X (value of factor X)

Provide information on how accurate the


prediction can be
R indicates the extent to which the predictors
(X variables) are related to the criterion (Y
variable)
Value of R
(range from 0 to 1= the higher the value, the more
accurate the prediction/more variance is explained)
Relationship between each predictor &
the criterion variables is represented
by the coefficient

values (range from 0 to 1)

r coefficient in correlations, indicates


the degree & direction of the relation
between two variables
Regression analysis indicates the
degree to which a predictor & criterion
are related when controlling for other
predictors
(provided by standardized coefficient)
2.3 Mediation, moderation & structural
equation modeling (SEM)
SEM
statistical tool enables researchers
to test causal models
a form of regression
allows for more sophisticated
analyses to be conducted
can treat a variable as predictor
& criterion at the same time
test causal chain:
whether x affects y & y affects z at the same
time.

test whether the relationship between x & z


is merely a function of y

This type of association is called


mediation (correlation between two
variables that is caused by a third/ latent
variable)
A different causal path can be
tested through moderation
models, consists in independent
effects of 2/ more variables on
another
Moderation has uncorrelated
predictors
SEM enables to include latent
variables at the same time by
identifying factors underlying a set
of measured variables)
3. PERSONALITY & SOCIAL BEHAVIOR

Terms prosocial & antisocial to refer to


a relatively specific set of
behavioral outcomes

Prosocial behaviors
(altruism, volunteerism, community
involvement & social services)

Antisocial behaviors
(crime, substance abuse & truancy)
Personality correlates of prosocial
behavior
are Extraversion & Agreeableness =
have tendency to help others & are more
motivated to engage in altruistic behaviors
(volunteering/charity work)

Penner, Fritzsche, Craiger & Freifeld


(1995) identified 2 components
underlying prosocial behavior:
Empathy
helpfulness
Personality correlates of
antisocial behavior are low:
Conscientiousness & Neuroticism

low Conscientiousness predicts:


adolescent conflict (Ge & Conger,1999)
Substance abuse (Watson & Roberts,2004)
Criminal acts (Wiebe,2004)
Suicide attempts (Verona, Patrick &
Joiner,2001)
Conscientiousness as a negative
correlate of Psychoticism (Eysenck
& Eysenck,1985)

Conscientious individual have a


higher sense of morality & self-
control =
tendency to suppress impulsive, risk-
taking & physical behaviors
The Big Five Personality traits
have regard to political attitudes
& predictors of social behavior
- Openness to Experience is
negatively associated with
conservatism &
authoritarianism
4. PERSONALITY & ROMANTIC
RELATIONSHIPS
Personality traits have longstanding
effects on our love life, affecting
choice, compatibility, congeniality
& level of romantic attachment

Important of examining whether:


personality variables improve/
impair romantic relationships
The best effects of personality traits
on romantic relationship derives
from longitudinal studies.
Temperament measures at the age of
3 predict relationship quality at the
age of 21 (Newman, Caspi, Moffitt & Silva,
1997)

Positive emotionality measured at age


18 predicted quality of relationship at
age 26 (Robins, Caspi & Moffitt, 2002)
Marriage is an important aspect of
interpersonal relationships,
Married individuals tend to live safer
(Bachman et al,1997),
healthier (Horwitz et al,1996),
wealthier (Gray,1997) &
longer liver (Hu & Goldman,1990)
Important of upbringing as a
constituent of romantic relationship
implicit observation & imitation of parental
(Amato & Booth,2001)

Themost consistent predictor of


romantic relationship is Neuroticism
Supportive upbringing during childhood
predicted less hostile relationship in
adulthood (Conger et al,2000)
Parenting styles can predict romantic
relationships
Neurotics predisposition to easily
experience anger, distress & anxiety is
relatively destructive for relationship
2 kinds of Love (Walster &
Walster,1978)
1) Passionate love- a short & intense
relationship that is often accompanied
by physiological arousal (rapid heart
rate & shortness of breath)

2) Compassionate love- a close &


enduring relationship that hinges on
affection & feelings of intimacy
outside physiological arousal.
Clark& Mills (1979) differentiate
between:
Exchange relationships (relationships based
on costs & benefits)
- A cost might be having to spend a lot of
time with someone
Communal relationships (relationships based
on altruistic motives)
- Involve more self- sacrifices
5. PERSONALITY & PERFORMANCE

In attempts to conceptualize the


relationship between personality and
broad performance,
Eysenck hypothesized that individual
differences in cerebral arousability
may explain both personality traits
and performance.

The 3 assumptions:
1) Extrovert & introvert; neurotic &
stable - individuals differ in their
levels of arousal
2) Performance is best at an
intermediate level of arousal

3) Individuals are motivated to


seek an intermediate level of
arousal
Introverts & neurotics tend to be more
aroused than extraverted & stable
individuals
Prediction of specific performance
outcomes requires more refined
account of the processes &
variables involved

Two aspects of performance that


received attention in the context of
individual differences traits:
educational achievement
occupational achievement
5.1 Personality & educational
performance
Studieshave examined correlations
between personality inventories
& measures of school/ university
achievement
Webb conceptualized persistence of
motives as an important personality trait
for the prediction of academic outcomes
Alexander (1935) factor x
The emergence of ability & IQ
tests were focused on cognitive
performance factors
when it predict individual differences in
learning & educational attainment
IQ tests are still the best and most
widely used individual difference
predictor of academic
performance.
Big Five as the major
personality dimensions
Conscientiousness
correlate exam & continuous
assessment performance
Individuals are more organized.
Motivated, responsible & proactive
Behaviors may lead to improved
academic performance -attending
class, doing homework etc.
Less Conscientiousness:
(miss/late to the class etc.)
Neuroticism (when assesses via exam)
Mediated by state anxiety
(Spielberger,1972)
Higher Neuroticism increases:
stress
anxiety

The tendency to worry is an inherent


characteristics of high Neuroticism &
interacts with external stressors (e.g.
exams) to enhance the subjective
component of stress, affecting the
individuals perception of the stressor
& his/ her ability to copy with it
(Lazarus & Folkman,1984)
Neuroticism may tap into
individual differences in self
efficacy
individuals belief about the extent
to which they can successfully carry
out the appropriate behaviors to
control & influence important life
events
Openness to Experience
Openness enables individuals to
have wider use of strategies &
learning techniques (e.g. flexibility)

Meta-analytic studies - moderately


correlated with crystallized
intelligence
Extraversion
May be moderated by type of
assessment\
Tasks that highlight social interaction
(e.g. verbal) may be easier for
extraverts
Tasks require long-term intellectual
investment (e.g. revising for long
hours) may be advantageous to
introverts.
This may include age & level of
education
Extraverts may have an advantage
over introverts in primary school & the
early years of secondary school
Introverts may outperform extraverts
thereafter (Entwistle & Entwistle,1970)
5.2 Personality & Job Performance
TheFive Factor personality Traits have modest
predictive validity in the workplace
Conscientiousness
The strongest & most consistent personality correlate
of job performance
Significantly correlated with job satisfaction
Conscientious individuals competent, organized,
dutiful, achievement-striving, self-disciplined
Significantly correlated with job satisfaction, which
emphasizes the important motivational aspects of
this trait
People who are more satisfied with their jobs can be
expected to perform better, which would in turn
increase their satisfaction with the job
Neuroticism
Lower correlations
Quite consistently, albeit not as strongly
Emotional stability (low neuroticism) is beneficial
for performance in most job settings
Attributed to the self-confidence, resilience &
calmness of emotionally stable individuals as well
as the higher anxiety, angry, hostility &
vulnerability of neurotic individual (Costa &
McCrae.1992)
6. PERSONALITY & HEALTH

Differential psychology has examined


the validity of personality traits as
predictors of different indicators of
psychological & physical health.
Historical connection is that between
personality & blood pressure
Somatogenic
An approach that views physical
factors as the cause of psychological
differences in personality
Temperament has associated with
individual differences in physiological
factors
Injuries that lead to cerebral vascular
changes can directly cause behavioral
changes (Elias & Elias,1993)
Psychogenic/ psychosomatic
View the association between
personality & physical factors as
indicative as indicative of the
influence of the former on the latter
(Alexander,1999)
Eg. Hypertension,
the diagnosis label for elevated blood
pressure of unknown origins
understood as a direct cause of individual
differences (reactions to conflicts,
frustration & repression)
Persons with hypertension have been described as
passive, unassertive, submissive & prone to suppress
anger & hostility (Johnson & Spielberger,1992)

Personality Traits
Predict broad indicators of physical health
(absence of illness & longevity) (Caspi et
al,2005)
May predict mental illness prognosis including
individuals responses to treatment (APA,1994)
Contrada, Cather & OLeary (1999)
conceptualized 3 ways that personality
may influence health outcomes:
1) Intrinsic characteristics
Associated with psychological processes that
have ve physical outcomes
Eg. Agreeableness, its minor dimensions of
anger & mistrust may lead to higher
activation of the sympathetic nervous
system & in turn enhance the chances of
coronary artery disease (Smith & Spiro,2002)
2) Risky behavioral choices
Eg. Smoking, unhealthy diet may
threaten individuals health.
Unhealthy behaviors are more typical in
individuals with low conscientiousness
scores
3) Prevention of & reaction to health
problems
Eg. Conscientious individuals will be
more likely to visit the doctor if they
sense health problems & take a more
proactive approach to treatment of
illness
7. PERSONALITY & HAPPINESS

Most valuable outcome variable of all


Happiness
- have benefits for marital quality,
income, productivity, sociability &
creativity among other things
(Lyubomirsky,2001)
- Extraversion & Emotional stability (low
Neuroticism) predispose individuals
towards happiness (Furnham &
Cheng,1997)
Associated with higher levels of self-
esteem (high extraversion & low
Neuroticism)
Cultural influences that moderate its
relationship with personality traits
Happiness & sadness events represent
objective causes of happiness/ upset
Personality traits
Pervasive indicators of happiness
Relationship between personality &
subjective well- being (not only to happiness
but also fulfillment & life satisfaction)
Positive psychology (happiness, fulfillment &
life satisfaction) represents the key aspects
of intrapersonal & in contrast to negative
emotions (fear, anger/ sadness)
3 avenues by which dispositions influence
happiness:
1) Baseline affect: levels of positive affect
generally higher in extraverted than
introverted & stable than neurotic
individuals
2) Emotional reactivity: individual differences
affect the degree to which people reach to
specific life events (whether & to what
extent they are emotionally affected by
positive & negative life episodes)
3) Information- processing: individual
difference factors predict peoples
interpretation of events (whether they
regard events as negative/ positive)
- There are positive/ negative biases
Conclusions

Evolution of personality research has been


achieved by the incorporation of
correlational designs & similar statistical
methods introduced by Pearson.
Dispositional studies are done on large
datasets & use sophisticated procedures for
data analyses (regressions, tests of
mediation & moderation & SEM) enable
researchers to test personality theories
against a variety of real-life outcomes.
Personality traits ( Big Five)
a valid predictors (dispositional
approaches) of academic &
occupational performance,
psychological, physical health &
happiness
Have behavioral consequences in
every aspect of our lives (personality
matters)
THANK YOU

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