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 Social-Cognitive Viewpoint:
Basic Assumptions
Assumption Description
Significance of Critical to understanding an individuals
the Personal behavior is taking into consideration his
View or her perceptions and beliefs

Much of what we do, feel or think is related to our

perceptions and beliefs.

To truly understand personality the nature and

structure of a persons perceptions and belief
system must be considered.
Cacioppo & Petty (1982)
- study 1
Need for cognition was higher among a group of
professors than a group of assembly line
workers.
Cacioppo & Petty (1982)
- study 2
419 introductory psychology
students took the NCS and
completed the Group
embedded figures task
which involves finding an
embedded figure within
other figures.
Need for cognition was
positively correlated with
solving these spatial ability
problems.
 Cacioppo & Petty (1982)
- study 3
Need for cognition was positively correlated with IQ
(r = .39 p<0.1). Those that had higher levels of IQ
were more likely to have positive outcomes of
thinking during development and would therefore
develop the tendency to be high in need for
cognition.
Need for cognition is not correlated with social
desirability (r = .08 ns).
Dogmatism is the reference of social recognition
and obedience over equality and freedom of
thought. Dogmatism is negatively correlated with
need for cognition (r = -.23, p<0.5)
Cacioppo & Petty (1982)
- study 4
Number circling
task
Simple Version:
circle all the 1s,
5s and 7s.
Complex version:
Circle all the 3s,
any 6 preceded by
a 7, and every
other 4.
Reducing prejudice through
accuracy
The classic contact hypothesis

Contact Knowledge Reduced prejudice Intergroup Relations

Testing the contact hypothesis
Kunda & Olsen (1995)

Participants asked about their existing

stereotypes about PR agents.
Participants read nine sentences about
Dave, a successful PR agent.
Sentences suggested an extremely or
moderately introverted individual.
Participants rated PR agents in general for
how extroverted/introverted they are.
Testing the contact hypothesis
Kunda & Olsen (1995)

Target

If you hold an extreme

stereotype, an extremely
disconfirming exemplar
is discounted; but if you
dont, it works
Yzerbyt et al (1999)
AIM: To demonstrate that we use of cognitive resources
to maintain stereotypes
METHOD:
Target group: Archivists
Stereotype: Introverted
Participants were then distracted by being asked
to remember a series of digits
Finally asked to rate how extroverted Pete is and
how extroverted engineers are in general.
Updated role of cognitive
processes in stereotyping
Stereotypes can be energy-consuming;
They may have functions that go beyond
saving cognitive resources.
People are motivated tacticians; stereotypes
are meaning-making devices.
Sometimes need for meaning outweighs need
for accuracy.
Social Learning Theory: Basic Concepts
Concept Description
Behavior Likelihood of performing a given behavior
Potential in a given situation will produce a given
reward
Expectancy Belief that performing a given behavior in
a given situation will produce a specific
reward
Specific Beliefs regarding a behavior-reward
Expectancies relation-ship in a particular situation
Generalized Beliefs regarding a behavior-reward
Expectancies relation-ship extended to a number of
situations
Reinforce- Expressing a preference for one
ment Value reinforcement over other reinforcements
Social Learning Theory: The Basic Formula

Written The behavioral potential (BP) in a specific

Expression situation (S1) is a function of the expectancy
(E) of the occurrence of a certain
reinforcement value (RVa) following a
particular behavior (x)
Formulaic
Expression BPS1 = f(ERVa + RVx, S1)
Social Learning Theory: Personality Adjustment

Freedom of The extent to which you believe you

movement possess the abilities to achieve
reinforcement.
Minimal Goal The least amount of a particular
Level reinforcer that you will accept as being
worthwhile.
Appropriate The ability to correctly assess the utility
generalization of your expectancies, rather than over-
of Expectancies generalize them
SLT: Personality Adjustment
Good Adjustment Poor Adjustment

Freedom of Belief that you have Belief that you lack

movement the ability to achieve the ability to meet
your goals. your goals
Minimal Goal Satisfaction at Disappointment at
Level achieving your not achieving your
basic goals basic goals
Appropriate Knowing what you Believing an action
generalization need to do to is futile when it is
of Expectancies succeed not, or believing an
action is
worthwhile when it
is not.
Topic Description: Internals vs. Externals
Information Internals pay more attention to and make
Processing better use of information than externals

Taking Internals take more action to influence the

Responsibility outcome of life events than externals

Assigning Internals hold individuals more personally

Responsibility responsible for their actions than externals

Academic Internals take more action to and obtain

Achievement more academic success than externals

Health Internals express more health-related action

Behavior than externals

Addictive Externals exhibit more expressions of

Behavior alcoholism than internals
Internal vs External
It appears to be in our interestnotto know about the
evidence in support of an external locus of control, as
deluding ourselves about an internal locus of control would
leads to greater success and happiness.
However, the internal view has costs when applied to
others: if one thinks that outcomes are generally internally
controlled, then a corollary is when bad things happen to
someone or they fail at something, it was primarily their
fault rather than them being a victim of circumstance.
An internal locus of control is associated with victim
blaming, support for excessive punishment and
discrimination against stigmatized groups.
 Evaluating Rotters Social Learning
Theory
Strength Description
Inclusion of Developed a comprehensive theory focusing
Cognitive on cognitive factors to understand the
Variables dynamics of personality and predict behavior
in a variety of situations
Emphasis Stressed systematic empirical research to
on Research validate the theorys basic principles while
serving to stimulate the research of others
Limitation Description
Being Too Focusing on cognitive variables places too
Cognitive much emphasis on subjective experiences
More on Focusing on cognitive variables ignores the
Being Too influence of emotional factors on the
Cognitive expression of personality
Social-Cognitive Theory

Environmen
Cognitive t

Behaviour
Ecological adversity moderates the effect of mothers personality (Agreeableness)

on their positive parenting

Banduras Observational Learning:
Basic Stages and Processes
Stage/Process Description
1. Paying Learning by observing is facilitated by
Attention focusing on the models critical behaviors
2. Retention Being able to mentally represent and/or
Strategies describe verbally the models behavior
facilitates learning by observing
3. Practice Having repeated opportunities to perform
the models behavior facilitates learning by
observing
4. Level of Exhibiting the desire to perform the models
Motivation behavior is influenced by experiences with
vicarious reinforcement and punishment of
the models behavior
 Bobo Doll experiment
RESULTS:
Children that viewed aggressive models were more aggressive.
Girls who viewed male models more physically aggressive
Girls who viewed a female model more verbally aggressive
Boys more physically aggressive overall

CONCLUSION:
The findings supportsocial learning theory. That is, children
learn social behavior such as aggression through the process of
observation learning - through watching the behavior of
another person.
This study has important implications for the effects of media
violence on children.
Evaluation of the Bobo Doll Studies
Strength Description
Establish Can conclude the model affected the
cause and child's behavior because all other
effect variables were controlled.
Precise Many variables were controlled, such
control of as the gender of the model, the time
variables the children observed the model, the
behavior of the model and so on.

Ease of Standardized procedures and

replication instructions were used, allowing for
replication.
Evaluation of the Bobo Doll Studies
Limitation Description
Low Contrived situation is unlike normal
ecological modelling (eg. the child did not know the
validity model nor interact with them).
Snap shot We cannot discover if such a single
study exposure can have long-term effects.
Unethical Children may have suffered long term
consequences from their participation.
Unclear Does not demonstrate how observation of
mechanism aggression changes personal behaviour.
Carganey, Anderson & Bushman
(2007)
AIM: To demonstrate that violent video games desensitize
players to real life violence.
METHOD:
257 college students had Galvic Skin Response (GSR) and
Heart Rate (HR) measured for 5 minutes.
Participants either played a violent video game
(Carmageddon, Duke Nukem, Mortal Kombat, Future Cop) or
a non-violent video game (Glider Pro, 3D Pinball, 3D munch
man, Tetra Madness).
Following the game HR and GSR were measured again.
Participants watch videos of real life violence whilst having
HR and GSR measured (for example two prisoners stabbing
each other).
Gentile et al. (2009)

Playing video games with pro-social content causes

people to be more helpful after playing.
Playing games with violent content causes people to
be less helpful and more hurtful after the game is
Self-Efficacy: Perceiving one has the necessary skills to
meet successfully the demands of a specific situation

Feature Description
Outcome Beliefs regarding the consequences for the
Expectations performance of a specific behavior
Influence of Impacts an individuals thoughts (e.g.,
Self-Efficacy expected outcomes), feelings (e.g., emotional
reactions), and behaviors (e.g., willing to
perform) in present and future situations
Factors Include what an individual hears (e.g., verbal
Influencing encouragement by others), vicarious
Self-Efficacy experiences (e.g., observing others
performing successfully), performance
accomplishments (e.g., ones successful
past performances), and emotional arousal
(e.g., inspired to perform by a sense of pride)
Self-Regulation: Acting according to personally
derived standards and expectations

Feature Description
Self-reward When you meet the standards you
get for yourself you feel a rewarding
increase in self-worth.
Self- Fail to meet your own standards
punishment you feel a personal sense of failure
Evaluating Banduras Social-Cognitive
Theory: Characteristic Strengths
Strength Description
Importance of Emphasizing the significance of cognitive
Modeling and processes provides a more realistic
Self-Efficacy explanation of the operation of personality

Emphasis on The theory is supported by a considerable

Research amount of empirical research

Social Many principles and processes of the

Relevance theory have been applied to address a wide
variety of important social issues
Evaluating Banduras Social-Cognitive
Theory: Characteristic Limitations
Limitations Description
Ignoring the Failing to consider the role of
Unconscious unconscious processes as an important
influence on the operation and
expression of personality

Overlooking the Failing to provide an adequate account of

Developmental the developmental expression of many
Components of important principles and processes
Personality associated with the theory
Mischels Cognitive-Affective
System
Cognitive-affective units
Personal qualities
influencing how an individual
processes information in the
environment and generates
responses to it
CAPS variables are not isolated,
but are interconnected

In the CAPS model, the focus is not

just on how much of a particular
unit (e.g., self-efficacy belief,
performance anxiety, mastery goal
orientation) a person has, but in
how these cognitive-affective units
are organized with one another
Comparing ASPD to Psychopathy
ASPD is predominantly defined
by overt behaviors rather than
unobservable personality traits
because behaviors are
assumed to be more reliable
diagnostic criteria.

Psychopathy is defined by
personality traits such as
egocentricity, impulsivity,
irresponsibility, and a lack of
remorse, empathy or guilt.
 Prevalence
Prevalence of ASPD and
psychopathy is low in
the general population,
approximately 3-5%
meet the criteria for
ASPD and 1-3% for
psychopathy (Moran,
1999; Ogloff, 2006).
15% of the criminal
population classify as
psychopathic, whereas
50-80% meet the criteria
for ASPD
Empathy
Affective empathy refers to the extent to which a person
experiences emotions in response to another persons
expression of an emotional state.
Affective empathy (an emotional response evoked by the
affective state or situation of the other person)
Affective Sympathy (an emotional response, elicited by the
emotional state or situation of the other person, that is not
identical to the other's emotion and involves feelings of
concern or sorrow for the other person).
Cognitive empathy, conversely, refers to the
understanding of what another person is experiencing, that
is, putting oneself in the other persons shoes.
Lack of empathy

Cognitive
Affective

Psychopaths ASPD Controls

 Predictive Validity
Harris, Rice and Cormier (1991) reported that psychopathy is a
significantly better predictor of violent recidivism than ASPD.
Hare (1996b) has also claimed that there is no known treatment
for psychopathy (pp.41), in contrast to ASPD.
Ogloff, Wong and Greenwood (1990) reported that psychopaths
derive little benefit from treatment, and there is evidence some
treatments may even make psychopaths worse.
Rice, Harris and Cormier (1991) found that violent recidivism was
higher for psychopaths who had taken part in their therapeutic
program, than non-treated psychopaths. On the other hand,
treatment of patients with ASPD appears more hopeful.
Gibbon et al. (2010) reviewed psychosocial treatments for those
with ASPD and found they respond positively to treatments
targeting anger and violence. Indeed, prison programs and
correctional rehabilitation have helped inmates change their
criminal ways of thinking, leading to a reduced risk of recidivism
Three interpretations
Psychopathy and ASPD are different disorders that
simply share several symptoms.
ASPD and psychopathy differ along the same
continuum, with psychopathy being most severe.
Disorders are synonymous, evidence of differences
is an artifact of assessment.
 Evaluating the
dimensional approach
There are two populations that cannot be
explained by the proposed continuum between
ASPD and psychopathy:
those with severe ASPD who are not
psychopathic, and psychopaths without ASPD.

Psychopathy ASPD normal

v
v
Authoritarian Personality

Characteristics of an Authoritarian
Personality
Overly deferential and anxious towards authority
figures

Sees things in black and white

Unwilling to tolerate cognitive ambiguity

Hostile towards outgroup members.

Normal vs.
Authoritarian Personality
Prejudiced individual
Normal Individual
Families overly
In socialization, concerned with good
balance between behavior and
allowing self- conformity to
expression and conventional morals
imposing limits
Harsh punishment

Aggression
Anxious and
deferential towards
authority figures
Authoritarian Personality
Aggression cannot be directed towards the
parents
It is re-directed towards substitute targets
considered weaker/inferior to the self; deviants;
minorities etc.
Measuring Authoritarianism
Adorno (1950)

HYPOTHESIS
People who scored high on the F-scale would
have had an authoritarian upbringing.
METHOD
Clinical interviews of very high and very low F-
scale scorers.
Questions about early childhood experience.
Questions about perceptions of their parents.
Measuring Authoritarianism
Adorno (1950)

RESULTS
Individuals scoring high on the F-Scale tended to report a
kind of childhood experience consistent with Adornos et
al.s hypotheses
LIMITATIONS
Design and validation of the scale (unrepresentative
sample).
All items were worded positively (when corrected, the scale
was much less reliable).
Validation of the scale with interviews. The interviewer
knew the score of each respondent beforehand.
Social Dominance Theory
Sidanius, Pratto, & Bobo (1996)

All known human societies appear to be hierarchically

organized, some groups having power over others.
Distinctions between groups are generally arbitrary in
nature. However, two dimensions are believed to be
functionally significant everywhere (age and gender)
Also competition for economic resources is reason other
arbitrary divisions emerge.
In SDT, prejudices are regarded as myths which help to
legitimize the unequal status quo; ultimately they are
reflected in discriminatory behavior that reinforces the
existing social hierarchy
Limitations of a Personality
Account of Prejudice
1. Underestimates the power and
importance of the immediate social
situation in shaping peoples attitudes.
2. Inability to explain the uniformity of
prejudiced attitudes
3. Inability to explain rapid rise and fall in
prejudice over time. Ex.: In the Nazi
Germany prejudice against Jews
increased in a decade
Importance of Social
Situation
METHOD
Siegel and Siegel (1959)
Participants were randomly assigned to either a
conservative or liberal sorority at college.
Participants Authoritarianism levels were measured at
the beginning and end of their first year.
RESULTS
Students who were exposed to progressive group norms
showed a drop ion Authoritarianism, those in the
traditional sorority remained mostly unchanged.
Implicit and Explicit Attitudes
EXPLICIT Operate in a conscious mode
ATITUDES and are exemplified by
traditional self-report
measures (eg Modern Racism
Scale, F-Scale).

IMPLICIT Operate in an unconscious

ATTITUDE fashion and represent
S introspectively unidentified
(or inaccurately identified)
traces of past experience
that mediate favorable or
unfavorable feeling, thought,
or action toward social
objects.
Implicit Association Test
Greenwald et al., 1998

IAT is able to measure implicit attitudes

IAT appears to resist self-presentation bias
IAT can be adapted to measure a variety of
implicit attitudes.
Implicit Association Test
Greenwald et al., 1998

STUDY ONE
Consistently superior performance was observed when
associatively compatible categories were mapped to the same
response key (flowers & pleasant, weapons & unpleasant).
STUDY TWO
IAT scores discriminated Japanese from Korean participants
who each favored their in-group.
The IAT effect was larger depending on the extent to which
participants were immersed in their culture.
STUDY THREE
White participants showed a significant association between
white names and positive evaluation.
Implicit attitudes did not correlate with explicit attitudes.
Aversive Racism
Penner et al., 2009

RESULTS
Shooter Bias
Correll, Park, Judd & Wittenbrink (2002)

RESULTS

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 Shooter Bias
Correll, Park, Judd & Wittenbrink (2002)
RESULTS

Cultural Stereotype: Participants were asked to indicate how dangerous they believed most
white Americans would estimate African Americans to be, not on the basis of their own
personal beliefs.

Contact: Participants were asked: how many African Americans they know; how well they
know their African American acquaintances; the degree of contact with African Americans they
had in their neighborhood, when growing up; the number of African American friends they had
while growing up; and the number of African Americans who had attended their high school.
Shooter Bias
Correll, Park, Judd & Wittenbrink (2002)

RESULTS

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White and Black participants showed equivalent levels of

shooter bias.
Shooter Bias Training Cops
Sim et al., (2013)

METHOD
22 Special Units (SU) officers from gang and street-crime
units performed the standard Shooter Task.
These data were compared with data from 31 patrol officers
and 45 community members
RESULTS
Reducing Implicit Bias
Implicit attitudes are mirror-like
reflections of the environments that
individuals are immersed in.
Changes in environments should
produce corresponding changes in
peoples implicit attitudes.
Reducing Implicit Bias
with Perspective Taking
Todd et al. (2011)

RESULTS
Compared with objective-focus participants, perspective-
takers showed more positive implicit racial evaluations