The Principles of

The Cognitive Level of Analysis

Outline the principles that
define the cognitive level
of analysis and explain
how they can be
demonstrated in research.
 Principle 1: Human beings are
information processors and mental
processes guide behavior.
We are always trying
to process the info
around us.
Our perceptions are
usually based on what
we already know.
There is a relationship
between our mental
representation and the
way we perceive and What do
you think
think about the world. this is?
 Principle 1 is demonstrated in
Schema Theory
A schema is a
mental
representation of
knowledge in the
brain. Right now in your head,
picture a model.
We have schemas
for basically
But does
everything!!!!
this one?
 Schema Theory
They provide
Whether at guidelines for
religious interpreting
school or at
a party, you information when
expect
different
trying to make
behaviors. sense of the world.
They create
expectations on
what will happen in
What if someone certain situations.
threw you a curve
ball by doing
something you do
not expect.
 Schema Theory
Can even explain.
Stereotyping
An overgeneralized
belief about a group
of people.
Do schemas affect the way we
perceive race?
Schemas and Memory
Reconstruction
Our memories are
not video and audio
recordings.
They are constructed
by cognitive
processes.like
schemas.
How do you think
schemas can effect
our memories?
 Schema Theory
A Jean Piaget side note..
Assimilation Accommodation

Incorporating new
concepts into existing
schemas. Changing existing
If I teach my 3 year that schemas to
an animal with 4 legs incorporate new
and a tail is a dog. information.
If I tell someone from the mid-west to
picture their schema of the Bronx
they may talk about the ghetto areas.

What
would
he call
this?
Darley and Gross (1983)

Carried out a
laboratory
experiment on
schema theory in
the social world.
Often called the
Hannah Study
Participants saw 2
videos of a girl.
 Darley and Gross (1983)
In video 1, girl was
playing in a poor
environment.
In video 2, girl was
playing in a rich
environment.
Then they saw a video
of the girl taking what
looked to be an
intelligence test and
answering the questions
inconsistently.
Darley and Gross (1983)
When participants were
asked to judge the future
of the girls, they all said
the rich girl would do
well and the poor girl
would do less well.
On average they judges
the rich Hannah as
having a 5th grade
academic level, and
poor Hannah at a 4th
grade level.
 Darley and Gross (1983)
The study
demonstrates that
participants
probably used pre-
stored schemas of
what it means to
be poor and rich.
They then
interpreted the rest
of the scene based
on these schemas.
Principle 2: The mind can be
Cognitive
studied scientifically.
psychologists use a
wide array of
methods to study
the mind:
Laboratory
experiments
Neuroimaging
Case Studies
Interviews
Archival Research
 Principle 2 is demonstrated in
Loftus and Palmer (1974)
Reconstruction of Automobile
Aim: Destruction
To investigate whether
the use of leading
questions would affect
recall in a situation
where participants
were asked to estimate
speed.
This is a situation that
could happen when
people appear in court
as eyewitnesses.
 Loftus and Palmer (1974)
Reconstruction of Automobile
Destruction
Procedure:
The student
participants saw
videos of traffic
accidents and had
to answer
questions about
the accident.
 Loftus and Palmer (1974)
Reconstruction of Automobile
Destruction
In experiment 1, the
participants were
asked to estimate
speed of the cars
based on a critical
question:
About how fast
were the cars going
when they
smashed/hit/collided/
bumped/ or
contacted?
 Loftus and Palmer (1974)
Reconstruction of Automobile
Destruction
Results:
The mean
estimates of speed
were highest in the
smashed
condition (40.8
mph).
Lowest in the
contacted group
(31.8 mph).
 Loftus and Palmer (1974)
Reconstruction of Automobile
Destruction
Results:
Were the results just lucky?
The results
The p-value
Anything p<.05 or less is
indicate that
significant. Which means memory is not
there is a 5% chance the reliable and can
study is BS. be manipulated
The results in Loftus were
by using specific
significant at p<0.005
(.5% chance of that words.
result occurring due to
chance).
 Loftus and Palmer (1974)
Reconstruction ofTheAutomobile
critical word in
Destruction
question consistently
affected the participants'
answer to the question.
One explanation could be
that the use of different
words influenced the
participants mental
representation of the
accident.
i.e., the verb smashed
activates a cognitive
schema of a severe
accident and therefore
speed estimates
increase.
 Loftus and Palmer (1974)
Reconstruction of Automobile
Destruction
It is not the actual
details of the accident
that are remembered
but rather what is in
line with a cognitive
schema of a severe
accident.
Like reconstructive
memory.
Or maybe they just suck
at estimating speed?
 Loftus and Palmer (1974)
Reconstruction of Automobile
Destruction
Evaluation:
The experiment was
conducted in a laboratory
setting so maybe an
ecological validity problem.
Maybe too artificial.
Use of just students as
participants.
But the controlled IV
(words) and DV (speed)
made it possible to
establish cause/effect
relationship.
Principle 3: Cognitive processes
are influenced by social and
cultural factors.

Research has
shown that
cognitive processes
such as perception,
memory and
thinking are
influenced by socio
cultural factors.
 Principle 3 is demonstrated in
Bartlett (1932) The War of Ghosts
Aim:
To investigate
whether peoples
memory for a story
is affected by
previous knowledge
(schemas) and the
extent to which
memory is
reconstructive.
Bartlett (1932) The War of
Ghosts
Procedure:
Bartlett asked British
participants to listen
to a story.
After a while he asked
them to reproduced
(repeat) the story.
He asked them again
and again (over a
period of months and
years) which he called
serial reproduction.
 Bartlett (1932) The War of
Ghosts
The story was an
unfamiliar Native
American legend
called The War
of Ghosts.
 The War of Ghosts
One night two young men from Egulac went down to the river to hunt seals and while they
were there it became foggy and calm. Then they heard war-cries, and they thought:
"Maybe this is a war-party". They escaped to the shore, and hid behind a log. Now canoes
came up, and they heard the noise of paddles, and saw one canoe coming up to them.
There were five men in the canoe, and they said:
"What do you think? We wish to take you along. We are going up the river to make war on
the people."
One of the young men said,"I have no arrows."
"Arrows are in the canoe," they said.
"I will not go along. I might be killed. My relatives do not know where I have gone. But
you," he said, turning to the other, "may go with them."
So one of the young men went, but the other returned home.
And the warriors went on up the river to a town on the other side of Kalama. The people
came down to the water and they began to fight, and many were killed. But presently the
young man heard one of the warriors say, "Quick, let us go home: that Indian has been
hit." Now he thought: "Oh, they are ghosts." He did not feel sick, but they said he had
been shot.
So the canoes went back to Egulac and the young man went ashore to his house and
made a fire. And he told everybody and said: "Behold I accompanied the ghosts, and we
went to fight. Many of our fellows were killed, and many of those who attacked us were
killed. They said I was hit, and I did not feel sick."
He told it all, and then he became quiet. When the sun rose he fell down. Something black
came out of his mouth. His face became contorted. The people jumped up and cried.
He was dead.
Bartlett (1932) The War of
Ghosts
Results:
The participants
remembered the
main idea of the
story (the gist) but
they changed
unfamiliar
elements to make
sense of the story
by using terms
more familiar to
their own cultural
expectations.
 Bartlett (1932) The War of
Ghosts
The story remained a
coherent whole although it
was changed.
It became noticeably
shorter after each
reproduction.
Bartlett concluded that
remembering is an active
process.
Memories are not copies
of experience but rather
reconstructions.
Bartlett (1932) The War of
Ghosts
Evaluation:
The results of the
study confirm
schema theory
(and reconstructive
memory).
But is was
performed in a
laboratory and
might lack
ecological validity.
 Bartlett (1932) The War of
Ghosts
Participants did not
receive standardized
instructions and some
of the memory
distortions may be due
to simple guessing
(demand
characteristics such as
the Hawthorne effect)
Still, this study is one of
the most important in
the study of memory.
 Cole and Scribner (1974)
Cross-cultural study of memory

Aim:
To investigate
recall memory in
two different
cultures: the USA
and the Kpelle
people of Liberia.
 Cole and Scribner (1974)
Cross-cultural study of memory
Procedure:
For the test in Liberia, the
researchers used objects that
would be familiar to the
Liberian children. The same
with the American children.
The children were then asked
to recall the words (in any
order).
They then presented both
groups a meaningful story
that had the words, and
asked them to recall them
again.
 Cole and Scribner (1974)
Results:
Cross-cultural study of memory
Before the story,
both the schooled
Liberian and USA
children memorized
the words at about
the same rate.
But the non-schooled
children memorized
at a much slower
rate.
 Cole and Scribner (1974)
Cross-cultural study of memory
Results:
After they put the words
in a story, both the
schooled and non-
schooled children
memorized at the same
rate.
The schooled Liberian
and USA children used
techniques such as
chunking to memorize,
and the non-schooled
children did not.
 Cole and Scribner (1974)
Cross-cultural study of memory
The non-schooled
children were
unable to use
these techniques.
Education creates
a cultural
difference in
memory and
catagorization?
 Cole and Scribner (1974)
Cross-cultural study of memory

I see what they

were trying to do
but what were
there problems?