LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lecture you will be able to:

1. Understand that ENERGY can be transformed from one form to another.

2. Know that energy exist in two forms; free energy - available for doing work
or as heat - a form unavailable for doing work.
3. Appreciate that the Sun provides most of the energy needed for life on
Earth.
4. Explain why photosynthesis is so important to energy and material flow for
life on earth.
5. Know why plants tend to be green in appearance.
6. Equate the organelle of photosynthesis in eukaryotes with the chloroplast.
7. Describe the organization of the chloroplast.
8. Understand that photosynthesis is a two fold process composed of the
light-dependent reactions (i.e., light reactions) and the light
independent reactions (i.e. Calvin Cycle or Dark Reactions).
9. Tell where the light reactions and the CO2 fixation reactions occur in the
chloroplast.
10. Define chlorophylls giving their basic composition and structure.
11. Draw the absorption spectrum of chlorophyll and compare it to the action
spectrum of photosynthesis.
12. Define the Reaction Centers and Antennae and describe how it operates.
13. Describe cyclic photophosphorylation of photosynthesis.
14. Describe noncyclic photophosphorylation of photosynthesis.
Energy can be transformed from
one form to another
FREE ENERGY
(available for work)
vs.
HEAT
(not available for work)
 THE SUN: MAIN SOURCE OF
ENERGY FOR LIFE ON EARTH
 THE BASICS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Almost all plants are photosynthetic autotrophs, as
are some bacteria and protists
Autotrophs generate their own organic matter through
photosynthesis
Sunlight energy is transformed to energy stored in the
form of chemical bonds

(c) Euglena (d) Cyanobacteria

(b) Kelp
(a) Mosses, ferns, and
flowering plants
Light Energy Harvested by Plants &
Other Photosynthetic Autotrophs

6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light energy C6H12O6 + 6 O2

Food Chain
THE FOOD WEB
WHY ARE PLANTS GREEN?

It's not that easy bein' green

Having to spend each day the color of the leaves
When I think it could be nicer being red or yellow or gold
Or something much more colorful like that

Kermit the Frog

Electromagnetic Spectrum and
Visible Light
Gamma Infrared &
rays X-rays UV Microwaves Radio waves

Visible light

Wavelength (nm)
 WHY ARE PLANTS GREEN?
Different wavelengths of visible light are seen by
the human eye as different colors.

Gamma Micro- Radio

X-rays UV Infrared
rays waves waves

Visible light

Wavelength (nm)
The feathers of male cardinals
are loaded with carotenoid
pigments. These pigments
absorb some wavelengths of
light and reflect others.

t
e d lig h
e fl ect
R

Sunlight minus absorbed

wavelengths or colors
equals the apparent color
of an object.
Why are plants green?
h t
lig
c ted Transmitted light
efl e
R
WHY ARE PLANTS GREEN?
Plant Cells
have Green
Chloroplasts

The thylakoid
membrane of the
chloroplast is
impregnated with
photosynthetic
pigments (i.e.,
chlorophylls,
carotenoids).
 THE COLOR OF LIGHT SEEN IS THE
COLOR NOT ABSORBED

Chloroplasts
absorb light Reflected
energy and Light light

convert it to
chemical energy

Absorbed
light

Transmitted Chloroplast
light
AN OVERVIEW OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Photosynthesis is the process by which

autotrophic organisms use light energy to
make sugar and oxygen gas from carbon
dioxide and water

Carbon Water Glucose Oxygen

dioxide gas
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
 AN OVERVIEW OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
The light reactions
Light
convert solar Chloroplast
energy to chemical
energy NADP
Produce ATP & NADPH ADP
+P
Calvin
The Calvin cycle makes Light cycle
reactions
sugar from carbon
dioxide
ATP generated by the light
reactions provides the energy
for sugar synthesis
The NADPH produced by the
light reactions provides the
electrons for the reduction of
carbon dioxide to glucose
 Chloroplasts: Sites of Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis
Occurs in chloroplasts, organelles in certain
plants
All green plant parts have chloroplasts and carry
out photosynthesis
The leaves have the most chloroplasts
The green color comes from chlorophyll in the
chloroplasts
The pigments absorb light energy
 Photosynthesis occurs in chloroplasts
In most plants, photosynthesis occurs
primarily in the leaves, in the chloroplasts
A chloroplast contains:
stroma, a fluid
grana, stacks of thylakoids
The thylakoids contain chlorophyll
Chlorophyll is the green pigment that captures
light for photosynthesis
 The location and structure of chloroplasts
Chloroplast
LEAF CROSS SECTION MESOPHYLL CELL
LEAF

Mesophyll

CHLOROPLAST Intermembrane space

Outer
membrane

Granum Inner
membrane
Grana Stroma Thylakoid
Stroma Thylakoid compartment

Plants
Autotrophs produce their own food
(glucose)
Process called photosynthesis
Mainly occurs in the leaves:
a. stoma - pores
b. mesophyll cells

Mesophyll Chloroplast
Cell Stoma

20
 Stomata (stoma)
Pores in a plants cuticle through which
water vapor and gases (CO2 & O2) are
exchanged between the plant and the
atmosphere.
Oxygen
(O2)
Stoma

Guard Cell Guard Cell

Carbon Dioxide
(CO2)
21
Found on the underside of leaves
 Mesophyll Cell of Leaf

Nucleus
Cell Wall
Chloroplast

Central Vacuole

Photosynthesis occurs in these cells!

22
 Chloroplast
Organelle where photosynthesis
takes place.
Stroma
Outer Membrane Thylakoid Granum
Inner Membrane

Thylakoid stacks are connected together 23

 Thylakoid

Thylakoid Membrane

Thylakoid Space
Granum

Grana make up the inner membrane 24

 Chloroplast Pigments
Chloroplasts contain several pigments

Chlorophyll a
Chlorophyll b
Carotenoids

Figure 7.7
Chlorophyll a & b
Chl a has a methyl
group

Chl b has a carbonyl

group

Porphyrin ring
delocalized e-

Phytol tail
Different pigments absorb light
differently
 Parts of
Photosynthesis

28
Two Parts of Photosynthesis
Two reactions make up
photosynthesis:
1.Light Reaction or Light
Dependent Reaction -
Produces energy from solar
power (photons) in the form of
ATP and NADPH.
SUN
29
Two Parts of Photosynthesis
2. Calvin Cycle or Light
Independent
Reaction
Also called Carbon Fixation or
C3 Fixation
Uses energy (ATP and
NADPH) from light reaction to
make sugar (glucose).

30
Light Reaction (Electron Flow)
Occurs in the Thylakoid
membranes
During the light reaction, there
are two possible routes for
electron flow:
A. Cyclic Electron Flow
B. Noncyclic Electron Flow
31
 Cyclic Electron Flow
Occurs in the thylakoid membrane.
Uses Photosystem I only
P700 reaction center- chlorophyll a
Uses Electron Transport Chain
(ETC)
Generates ATP only
P
ADP + ATP

32
 Cyclic Electron Flow
Primary e-
SUN Electron
Acceptor

e- e- ATP
produced
Photons by ETC
P700
e-
Accessory
Pigments
Photosystem I

Pigments absorb light energy & excite e- of

Chlorophyll a to produce ATP 33
 Noncyclic Electron Flow
Occurs in the thylakoid membrane
Uses Photosystem II and
Photosystem I
P680 reaction center (PSII) -
chlorophyll a
P700 reaction center (PS I) -
chlorophyll a
Uses Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
Generates O2, ATP and NADPH

34
 Noncyclic Electron Flow Primary
Electron
Acceptor 2e-
Enzyme
Reaction
Primary
Electron 2e-
Acceptor 2e-
ETC

SUN 2e-
2e- P700 NADPH
Photon
ATP
P680 Photon
H2O Photosystem I

1/2O2 + 2H+ Photosystem II

H2O is split in PSII & ATP is made, while the energy carrier
NADPH is made in PSI 35
 Noncyclic Electron Flow

ADP + P ATP
NADP+ + H NADPH
Oxygen comes from the splitting
of H2O, not CO2

H2O 1/2 O2 + 2H+

36
 Chemiosmosis
Powers ATP synthesis
Takes place across the thylakoid
membrane
Uses ETC and ATP synthase
(enzyme)
H+ move down their concentration
gradient through channels of ATP
synthase forming ATP from ADP
37
 Chemiosmosis
SUN
H+ H + (Proton Pumping)
Thylakoid E
PS II T PS I
C
high H+
H H
+ +
concentration
H+ H + H+ H+

Thylakoid
H +
ATP Synthase Space

low H+
ADP + P H+ ATP concentration 38
Excitation of chlorophyll Loss of energy due to
heat causes the photons
in a chloroplast of light to be less
energetic.
e Excited
2 state
Less energy translates
into longer wavelength.
Heat

Light
Light
(fluorescence)
Photon

Ground
state
Chlorophyll
molecule

(a) Absorption of a photon

(b) fluorescence of isolated chlorophyll in solution

Cyclic Photophosphorylation
Process for ATP generation associated with
some Photosynthetic Bacteria
Reaction Center => 700 nm
 Two types of
photosystems
cooperate in the
light reactions

Photon
ATP
mill
Photon

Water-splitting NADPH-producing
photosystem photosystem
Noncyclic Photophosphorylation
Photosystem II regains electrons by splitting water
(photolysis), leaving O2 gas as a by-product
E l ec
Primary tro
n
electron acceptor tra
ns
po
rt
Primary El
electron acceptor ec
tro
n
tra
ns
po
rt
c ha
in

Photons

Energy for
synthesis of

PHOTOSYSTEM I

PHOTOSYSTEM II by chemiosmosis
Plants produce O2 gas by splitting H2O
Process called Photolysis
The O2 liberated by photosynthesis is made
from the oxygen in water (H+ and e-)
How the Light Reactions Generate ATP and NADPH
Primary NADP
electron
acceptor
Energy
Primary to make 3
electron
acceptor 2

Light
E le
ct r
on
t r an
sp
o rt
Light ch
ain

Primary
electron
acceptor

Reaction-
1 center NADPH-producing
chlorophyll photosystem

Water-splitting
photosystem
2 H + 1/2
 In the light reactions, electron transport
chains generate ATP, NADPH, & O2

Two connected photosystems collect

photons of light and transfer the energy to
chlorophyll electrons
The excited electrons are passed from the
primary electron acceptor to electron
transport chains
Their energy ends up in ATP and NADPH
Chemiosmosis powers ATP synthesis
in the light reactions
The electron transport chains are arranged
with the photosystems in the thylakoid
membranes and pump H+ through that
membrane
The flow of H+ back through the membrane is
harnessed by ATP synthase to make ATP
In the stroma, the H+ ions combine with NADP+ to
form NADPH
 The production of ATP by chemiosmosis in
photosynthesis

Thylakoid
compartment
(high H+) Light Light

Thylakoid
membrane

Antenna
molecules

Stroma ELECTRON TRANSPORT

(low H+) CHAIN

PHOTOSYSTEM II PHOTOSYSTEM I ATP SYNTHASE

 A Photosynthesis Road Map

Chloroplast

Light
Stroma

Stack of NADP
thylakoids ADP
+P
Light Calvin
reactions cycle

Sugar used for

Cellular respiration
Cellulose
Starch
Other organic compounds
 Calvin Cycle
Carbon Fixation (light independent
reaction)
C3 plants (80% of plants on earth)
Occurs in the stroma
Uses ATP and NADPH from light
reaction as energy
Uses CO2
To produce glucose: it takes 6 turns
and uses 18 ATP and 12 NADPH.

49
 Chloroplast

STROMA where Calvin Cycle occurs

Outer Membrane Thylakoid Granum
Inner Membrane

50
 Calvin Cycle (C3 fixation)
(36C)
(6C) 6C-C-C-C-C-C
6CO2 (unstable)
6C-C-C 6C-C-C 12PGA
(36C)
6ATP 6ATP
(30C)
6C-C-C-C-C 6NADPH 6NADPH
RuBP
(36C)
6ATP 6C-C-C 6C-C-C 12G3P

C3 (30C) (6C)
glucose 51
C-C-C-C-C-C
Glucose
 Calvin Cycle
Remember: C3 = Calvin Cycle

C3

Glucose
52
 Photorespiration
Occurs on hot, dry, bright days
Stomates close
Fixation of O2 instead of CO2
Produces 2-C molecules instead of
3-C sugar molecules
Produces no sugar molecules or no
ATP

53
 Photorespiration
Because of photorespiration, plants
have special adaptations to limit
the effect of photorespiration:
1. C4 plants
2. CAM plants

54
 C4 Plants
Hot, moist
environments
15% of plants
(grasses, corn,
sugarcane)
Photosynthesis
occurs in 2 places
Light reaction -
mesophyll cells
Calvin cycle - bundle
sheath cells
55
 C4 Plants
Malate-4C sugar Malate
C-C-C-C C-C-C-C
Transported CO2
CO2
C3
Vascula
glucose Tissue
C-C-C
PEP ATP
C-C-C
Pyruvic Acid

Mesophyll Cell Bundle Sheath Cell

56
 CAM Plants
Hot, dry environments
5% of plants (cactus and ice
plants)
Stomates closed during day
Stomates open during the night
Light reaction - occurs during the
day
Calvin Cycle - occurs when CO2 is
present
57
 CAM Plants
Night (Stomates Open) Day (Stomates Closed)

Vacuole
C-C-C-C C-C-C-C C-C-C-C
CO2 Malate Malate
Malate
CO2
C3

C-C-C
PEP
ATP C-C-C glucose
Pyruvic acid 58
 Review: Photosynthesis uses light
energy to make food molecules

A summary of
the chemical
Chloroplast

Light

processes of
photosynthesis Photosystem II
Electron
transport CALVIN
chains CYCLE Stroma
Photosystem I

Elec
tron
s
Cellular
respiration
Cellulose
Starch
Other
LIGHT REACTIONS CALVIN CYCLE organic
compounds
It's not that
easy bein'
green but it
is essential for
life on earth!