CHAPTER 7:

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
Stress and strain: What are they and why are
they used instead of load and deformation?
Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much
deformation occurs? What materials deform least?
Plastic behavior: At what point do dislocations
cause permanent deformation? What materials are
most resistant to permanent deformation?
Toughness and ductility: What are they and how
do we measure them?
Ceramic Materials: What special provisions/tests are
made for ceramic materials? 1
 ELASTIC DEFORMATION
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to
initial

F
F Linear-
elastic
Elastic means reversible! Non-Linear-
elastic

2
 PLASTIC DEFORMATION
(METALS)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch planes
& planes still
shear sheared

plastic
elastic + plastic

F
F
Plastic means permanent! linear linear
elastic elastic

plastic
3
 ENGINEERING STRESS
Tensile stress, : Shear stress, :
Ft Ft F

Area, A Area, A Fs

Fs
Ft Ft
Fs F Ft

Ao Ao
original area
before loading Stress has units:
N/m2 or lb/in2
4
 ENGINEERING STRAIN
Tensile strain: Lateral strain:
/2
L
L
Lo Lo wo
wo
/2
L /2 L /2
Shear strain:
/2

= tan Strain is always

dimensionless.
/2 -

/2 /2
8
 STRESS-STRAIN TESTING
Typical tensile specimen Typical tensile
test machine
load cell
Adapted from Fig. 6.2,
Callister 6e.

specimen
extensometer

moving cross head

gauge (portion of sample with

=
length reduced cross section)
Other types of Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister 6e.
(Fig. 6.3 is taken from H.W.
tests: Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff,
The Structure and Properties of
--compression: brittle Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical
Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and
materials (e.g., Sons, New York, 1965.)
concrete) 9
 LINEAR ELASTIC PROPERTIES
Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(also known as Young's modulus) E F
Hooke's Law: 1
=E Linear-
elastic
Poisson's ratio, : L
L

F
metals: ~ 0.33
ceramics: ~0.25 - simple
polymers: ~0.40 1 tension
test
Units:
E: [GPa] or [psi]
: dimensionless
10
 OTHER ELASTIC PROPERTIES
M
Elastic Shear
modulus, G:
G simple
1 torsion
=G test

M
Elastic Bulk P P
modulus, K:
V V P P
P= -K Vo
Vo -K pressure
test: Init.
1 vol =Vo.
Special relations for isotropic materials: Vol chg.
E E = V
G K
2(1 ) 3(1 2)
12
 YOUNGS MODULI: COMPARISON
Graphite
Metals Composites
Ceramics Polymers
Alloys /fibers
1200
Semicond
E ceramics
1000 Diamond
800
600
400 Tungsten
Si carbide
Al oxide C arbon fibers only
>E metals
Molybdenum Si nitride
E(GPa) 200
Steel, Ni
Tantalum
Platinum
<111>
Si crystal
CFRE(|| fibers)* >>Epolymers
Cu alloys <100> Aramid fibers only
100 Zinc, Ti
80 Silver, Gold Glass-soda AFRE(|| fibers)*
60 Aluminum Glass fibers only
Magnesium, GFRE(|| fibers)*
40 Tin
Concrete

109 Pa 20 GFRE*
CFRE *
Graphite GFRE( fibers)*
10
8 CFRE( fibers)*
6 AFRE( fibers)*
Polyester
4 PET
PS
PC Epoxy only
2
PP
1 HDPE
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTFE
0.4

0.2 LDPE
13
 PLASTIC (PERMANENT)
DEFORMATION
(at lower temperatures, T < Tmelt/3)

Simple tension test:

Elastic+Plastic
tensile stress, at larger stress

Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed

p engineering strain,

plastic strain

15
 YIELD STRENGTH, y
Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
when p = 0.002
tensile stress,
y

engineering strain,
p = 0.002
16
 YIELD STRENGTH: COMPARISON
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
2000
Steel (4140)qt
y(ceramics)
>>y(metals)

in ceramic matrix and epoxy matrix composites, since

since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.
1000
Yield strength, y (MPa)

in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

Ti (5Al-2.5Sn)a
700 W (pure) >>y(polymers)
600 Cu (71500)cw
500 Mo (pure)
Steel (4140)a
400
Steel (1020)cd

Hard to measure,
300
Al (6061)ag Room T values
Hard to measure,

200 Steel (1020)hr

Ti (pure)a
Ta (pure)
Cu (71500)hr Based on data in Table B4,
Callister 6e.
100 a = annealed
dry
70 PC hr = hot rolled
60 Al (6061)a Nylon 6,6 ag = aged
50 PET
PVC humid
cd = cold drawn
40 cw = cold worked
PP
30 HDPE qt = quenched & tempered

20

LDPE
Tin (pure) 17
10
 TENSILE STRENGTH, TS
Maximum possible engineering stress in tension.
TS
Adapted from Fig. 6.11,
Callister 6e.
e n g in e e r in g
s tre s s

Typical response of a metal

strain
Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
Ceramics: occurs when crack propagation starts.
Polymers: occurs when polymer backbones are
aligned and about to break.
18
 TENSILE STRENGTH:
Metals/
COMPARISON
Graphite/
Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
5000 C fibers
3000
Aramid fib
E-glass fib TS (ceram)
Tensile strength, TS(MPa)

2000 Steel (4140)qt

AFRE(|| fiber)
~TS (met)
1000 W (pure) Diamond GFRE(|| fiber)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn)aa
Steel (4140) CFRE(|| fiber) ~TS (comp)
Cu (71500)cw Si nitride
Cu (71500)hr Al oxide
300
Steel (1020)
Al (6061)ag
>>TS (poly)
Ti (pure)a
200 Ta (pure) Room T values
Al (6061)a
100 Si crystal wood(|| fiber) Based on data in Table B4,
<100> Nylon 6,6
Glass-soda PC PET Callister 6e.
PVC GFRE( fiber) a = annealed
40 Concrete PP
30 CFRE( fiber)
AFRE( fiber) hr = hot rolled
HDPE ag = aged
20 Graphite
LDPE cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
10 qt = quenched & tempered
AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE =
aramid, glass, & carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy
wood( fiber)
composites, with 60 vol%
fibers.
1 19
 DUCTILITY, %EL
L f Lo
Plastic tensile strain at failure:%EL x100
Lo
smaller %EL
Engineering (brittle if %EL<5%)
tensile
stress, Ao
larger %EL Lo Af Lf
(ductile if
%EL>5%)
Adapted from Fig. 6.13,
Callister 6e.

Engineering tensile strain,

Ao A f
Another ductility measure:%AR x100
Ao
Note: %AR and %EL are often comparable.
--Reason: crystal slip does not change material
volume.
--%AR > %EL possible if internal voids form in neck. 20
 TOUGHNESS
Energy to break a unit volume of material
Approximate by the area under the stress-strain
curve.
Engineering smaller toughness (ceramics)
tensile larger toughness
stress, (metals, PMCs)

smaller toughness-
unreinforced
polymers

Engineering tensile strain,

21
 HARDENING
An increase in y due to plastic deformation.

large hardening
y
1
y small hardening
0

Curve fit to the stress-strain response:
hardening exponent:

T C T
n n=0.15 (some steels)
to n=0.5 (some copper)
true stress (F/A) true strain: ln(L/Lo)
22
 MEASURING ELASTIC MODULUS
Room T behavior is usually elastic, with brittle failure.
3-Point Bend Testing often used.
--tensile tests are difficult for brittle materials.
cross section
F
L/2 L/2 Adapted from Fig.
12.29, Callister 6e.
d R
b = midpoint
rect. circ.
deflection
Determine elastic modulus according to:
F F L3 F L3
x E
F 4bd3 12R 4
slope =
rect. circ.
cross cross
section section
linear-elastic behavior
23
 MEASURING STRENGTH
3-point bend test to measure room T strength.
cross section F
L/2 L/2 Adapted from Fig.
d R 12.29, Callister 6e.

b
rect. circ.

location of max tension

Flexural strength: Typ. values:

Material fs (MPa) E(GPa)
fail 1.5FmaxL FmaxL
fs m Si nitride 700-1000 300
bd2 R3 Si carbide 550-860 430
F rect. Al oxide 275-550 390
Fmax x glass (soda) 69 69
Data from Table 12.5, Callister 6e.

max 24
 TENSILE RESPONSE: ELASTOMER
CASE
(MPa)
60 xbrittle failure
Stress-strain curves
adapted from Fig.
15.1, Callister 6e.
Inset figures along
plastic failure elastomer curve
40 x (green) adapted from
Fig. 15.14, Callister
6e. (Fig. 15.14 is
from Z.D. Jastrzebski,
20 x The Nature and
elastomer Properties of
Engineering
final: chains Materials, 3rd ed.,
0
0 2 4 6 8
are straight,
still
John Wiley and Sons,
1987.)
cross-linked
initial: amorphous chains are Deformation
kinked, heavily cross-linked. is reversible!

Compare to responses of other polymers:

--brittle response (aligned, cross linked & networked
case)
--plastic response (semi-crystalline case) 25
 T AND STRAIN RATE:
THERMOPLASTICS
Decreasing T...
(MPa)
--increases E 80 4C Data for the
--increases TS semicrystalline
--decreases %EL 60 polymer: PMMA
20C (Plexiglas)
Increasing 40 40C
strain rate...
--same effects 20
as decreasing T. to 1.3
60C
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3
Adapted from Fig. 15.3, Callister 6e. (Fig. 15.3 is from T.S.
Carswell and J.K. Nason, 'Effect of Environmental Conditions on
the Mechanical Properties of Organic Plastics", Symposium on
Plastics, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia,
PA, 1944.)

26
 TIME DEPENDENT DEFORMATION
Stress relaxation test: Data: Large drop in Er
(amorphous
--strain to and hold. for T > Tg. polystyrene)
--observe decrease in 105 rigid solid
Er (10s) (small relax) Adapted from Fig.
stress with time. in MPa 10
3 15.7, Callister 6e.
transition (Fig. 15.7 is from
A.V. Tobolsky,
tensile test 101 region Properties and
Structures of
o strain 10-1 Polymers, John
viscous liquid Wiley and Sons,

(t) 10-3 (large relax) Inc., 1960.)

60 100 140 180T(C)

time Tg

Relaxation modulus: Sample Tg(C) values:

(t) PE (low Mw) -110
E r (t) PE (high Mw) - 90
o PVC
+ 87
Selected values
from Table 15.2,
+100 Callister 6e.
PS
+150
PC
27
 HARDNESS
Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
Large hardness means:
--resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
--better wear properties.
apply known force measure size
e.g., (1 to 1000g) of indent after
10mm sphere removing load

Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.

most brasses easy to machine cutting nitrided

plastics Al alloys steels file hard tools steels diamond

increasing hardness
Adapted from Fig. 6.18, Callister 6e. (Fig. 6.18 is adapted from G.F. Kinney, Engineering
Properties
and Applications of Plastics, p. 202, John Wiley and Sons, 1957.) 28
 DESIGN OR SAFETY FACTORS
Design uncertainties mean we do not push the
limit. Often N is
Factor of safety, N y between
working 1.2 and 4
N

Ex: Calculate a diameter, d, to ensure that yield does

not occur in the 1045 carbon steel rod below. Use a
factor of safety of 5. d
y
working 1045 plain
N carbon steel:
Lo
y=310MPa
220,000N
5 TS=565MPa

d2 /4

F = 220,000N

29
 Thermal Expansion
Materials change size when temperature
is changed
Tinitial
initial
Tfinal > Tinitial
Tfinal
final

final initial
(Tfinal Tinitial )
initial
linear coefficient of
thermal expansion (1/K or 1/C)

25
 Atomic Perspective: Thermal Expansion

Asymmetric curve: Symmetric curve:

-- increase temperature, -- increase temperature,
-- increase in interatomic -- no increase in interatomic
separation separation
-- thermal expansion -- no thermal expansion
26
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion: Comparison

Material (10-6/C)
Polymers at room T
Polypropylene 145-180 Polymers have larger
Polyethylene 106-198 values because of
Polystyrene 90-150 weak secondary bonds
Teflon 126-216
Metals Q: Why does
increasing

Aluminum 23.6 generally decrease

Steel 12 with increasing
Tungsten 4.5
bond energy?
Gold 14.2
Ceramics
Magnesia (MgO) 13.5
Alumina (Al2O3) 7.6
Soda-lime glass 9
Silica (cryst. SiO2) 0.4
27
 Thermal Stresses
Occur due to:
-- restrained thermal expansion/contraction
-- temperature gradients that lead to differential

dimensional changes

Thermal stress
E l (T0 Tf ) E l T

28
 SUMMARY
Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches y.
Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.

Note: For materials selection cases related

to mechanical behavior, see slides 20-4 to
30
20-10.