PETE 220

RESERVOIR ROCK PROPERTIES

SATURATION

SPRING 2016 2017

Dr. Mahmut Parlaktuna
mahmut@metu.edu.tr
DEFINITION
Apart from POROSITY and
PERMEABILITY, a third parameter need
to be determined is the amount of
hydrocarbon fluids present in the
reservoir rock.
Porosity: The maximum capacity of a
reservoir rock to store fluids
Saturation: How much of the fluid
storage capacity of a reservoir rock
contains various fluid phases
DEFINITION
In other words:

How is the storage capacity of a

reservoir rock is partitioned among the
three typical reservoir fluid phases:
gas, oil and water.
DEFINITION
Initial fluid saturations defined as
fractions of the pore space occupied
by gas, oil, and water are key factors
in the determination of initial reserves
of actual and recoverable
hydrocarbons in place.

Fluid saturations also dominates

important flow properties due to its
strong influence on relative
permeability functions.
DEFINITION

DISTRIBUTION OF FLUID
SATURATION IN A PETROLEUM
RESERVOIR
It is believed that initially the
reservoir rock in most hydrocarbon
reservoirs was completely saturated
with water.
When the reservoir rock was invaded
by hydrocarbons as per of the
migration process, gas, oil, and water
were distributed in the pore spaces
of the reservoir as a result of a
balance between gravitational and
DISTRIBUTION OF FLUID
SATURATION IN A PETROLEUM
RESERVOIR
The less dense hydrocarbon phases
(gas and oil) migrated to the
structurally high part of the reservoir
rock due to gravity.
However, complete gravity
segregation into three distinct layers
of gas, oil, and water was not
possible because of the resistance
due to capillary forces.
DISTRIBUTION OF FLUID
SATURATION IN A PETROLEUM
RESERVOIR
The gravitational forces cause the less
dense fluids to seek the higher position
in the trap.
Capillary forces tend to cause a wetting
fluid to rise into pore space containing a
nonwetting fluid.
Water, in general, is a wetting fluid with
respect to oil and gas, and oil is a
wetting fluid with respect to gas.
Capillarity tends to counteract the force
DISTRIBUTION OF FLUID
SATURATION IN A PETROLEUM
RESERVOIR
LABORATORY MEASUREMENT
OF FLUID SATURATION
There are two approaches to the
problem of determining the original
fluid saturations within a reservoir
rock.
The direct approach is measuring the
fluid saturations of a sample in
laboratory.
The indirect method is to determine the
fluid saturation by measuring some
other physical property of the rock, such
as using electric logs.
LABORATORY MEASUREMENT
OF FLUID SATURATION
Two methods are devised for the
laboratory measurement s of
saturation which are based on the
principle of leaching (removal of
liquids from a solid).
The first method involves the use of
heat to extract the fluids present in the
pore spaces, termed as RETORT
DISTILLATION.
The second method involves both heat
as well as organic solvent to extract the
RETORT DISTILLATION

This is one of the most popular means

of measuring fluid saturations. In this
method, a rock sample is electrically
heated in a container so as to vaporize
the water and oil; the vapors are
condensed and collected in a small
receiving vessel.
RETORT DISTILLATION

The apparatus
consists three
principal units;
a heating
unit,
a condenser,
and a
receiver.
RETORT DISTILLATION

Despite being a very simple and

rapid technique, the retort method
has certain drawbacks or
disadvanteges:
The application of very hig
temperatures (> 650 C) becomes
essential to ensure that all the oil is
completely extracted from the rock
sample
RETORT DISTILLATION
Using temperatures of such a high
values results two essential
problems:
At these
temperatures, the
water of
crystallization
within the rock is
driven off, causing
the water recovery
values to be
greater than just
the interstitial
water
RETORT DISTILLATION
Using temperatures of such a high
values results two essential
problems:
The second error which occurs from retorting is
the fact that oil when heated to high
temperatures has a tendency to crack and coke.

This changes the structure of hydrocarbon

molecules and decreases the liquid volume.

In addition, this coking coats the internal walls of

the rock sample.
RETORT DISTILLATION
The retort technique gives both
water and oil volumes, so that the oil
and water saturations can be
calculated from the following
formulas:

Sg = 1.0 Sw - So
DEAN-STARK EXTRACTION
In the technique, fluid saturation is
measured by a process of distillation
- extraction.
The set-up basically contains:
A long-neck round-bottom flask that
contains a suitable hydrocarbon solvent,
A heating element or electrical heater to
boil the solvent,
A condenser, and
A graduated tube receiver to measure
the volume of extracted fluids
DEAN-STARK EXTRACTION
In the Dean-Stark
extraction apparatus,
the solvent is heated to
its boiling point (for
toluene 110 C) .

The upward moving

solvent vapors begin to
extract or leach the oil
and water present in
the rock sample.
DEAN-STARK EXTRACTION
The rising water is
condensed in the
condenser and
eventually collected in
the graduated tube.
Since toluene is
completely miscible
with extracted oil, the
condensed liquid is in
the graduated tube
consists of two liquid
phases:
- Water
DEAN-STARK EXTRACTION
The water phase due to
its higher density,
settles at the bottom of
the graduated tube.
The solvent overflows
and drips back over the
core sample.
The process is
continued until no more
water is collected in the
receiving tube.
DEAN-STARK EXTRACTION
One major disadvantage of the Dean-
Stark method is the time requirement
to extract all the water from tight
formations (days).

Additionally, due to very low rate of

water recovery, there may be a
tendency to prematurely terminate the
distillation process under the
assumption that a plateau in the
cumulative water vs. time has been
DEAN-STARK EXTRACTION
Unlike the retort distillation method,
only the water saturation can be
directly determined using the Dean-
Stark extraction because it is the only
directly measured quantity, whereas
the gas and oil saturations are
determined indirectly.

In order to determine oil and gas

saturations the weight of core sample
must be measured before extraction
DEAN-STARK EXTRACTION
Let:
WW = the weight of core sample before
extraction
DW = the weight of core sample after
cleaning and drying
Mo = weight of oil extracted (unknown)
Mw = weight of water from Dean-Stark
Vg = volume of gas (unknown)
Vo = volume of oil (unknown)
Vw = volume of water from Dean-Stark
o, w, g = density of oil, water, and gas,
DEAN-STARK EXTRACTION
Mo + Mw + Mg = WW DW

PV = Vo + Vw + Vg

Where PV = pore volume of the rock

sample

WW, DW and Vw are directly measured

quantities whereas PV is obtained from
porosity measurements
DEAN-STARK EXTRACTION
The weights of different phases can be
expressed in terms of volume and
density
Voo + Vw w + Vg g = WW DW

PV = Vo + Vw + Vg

These two equations can be solved

simultaneously to obtain Vo and Vg
DEAN-STARK EXTRACTION
The density of water recovered from the
Dean-Stark extraction can be directly
measured, whereas the density of oil and
gas need to be measured as part of PVT
studies.

The saturations are calculated by;

Vg Vo Vw
Sg So Sw
PV PV PV
FACTORS AFFECTING FLUID
SATURATION DETERMINATION
The laboratory measured fluid saturation
data is probably one of the least
realiable reservoir property
measurement.
In principle, two different processes are
likely to introduce uncertainties in the
fluid saturations or alter the fluid
saturations:
- Invasion of the core sample by the mud,
- Shrinkage and expulsion of fluids from the
FACTORS AFFECTING FLUID
SATURATION DETERMINATION
During drilling operation
the mud column pressure
in the well is generally
higher than reservoir
pressure.

This pressure differential

across the well face
causes mud and mud
filtrate to invade the
formation resulting in
flushing the formation
FACTORS AFFECTING FLUID
SATURATION DETERMINATION
The second factor that contributes to the
uncertainties in core-measured fluid
saturation is related to pressure and
temperature changes from reservoir
conditions to surface conditions.

Decline in pressure results in the release of

gases that are initially dissolved in the liquid
hydrocarbons, causing a shrinkage in oil
volume, and, as the gases expand and
escape from the core, an expulsion of some
of the mobile oil and water from the pore
FACTORS AFFECTING FLUID
SATURATION DETERMINATION
In addition to the pressure effect, thermal
contraction of any oil and water present in
the pore system may also be significant as
the core material cools from reservoir
temperature to surface temperature.

Therefore, these pressure and temperature

effects result in completely altered fluid
saturation in the core sample as compared to
the actual reservoir.
FACTORS AFFECTING FLUID
SATURATION DETERMINATION
Flushed with water base
mud

Flushed with oil base

mud
FACTORS AFFECTING FLUID
SATURATION DETERMINATION
Original

Depleted
THE USE OF CORE
DETERMINED FLUID
SATURATIONS
The saturations of cores cut with water-
based muds are used to determine:
original oil-gas contact,
original oil-water contact, and
whether a sand is productive of oil or gas.

The determination of contacts is

made by carefully studying the
residual oil saturations of the cores as
THE USE OF CORE
DETERMINED FLUID
SATURATIONS
In the oil-saturated regions, the
samples will have essentially a
constant value for residual oil
saturations, probably 15% or greater.
In the gas region, the oil saturation is
small or vanishes. Thus the depth of
the gas-oil contact is defined by a
sharp increase in oil saturation.
In the water zone, the oil saturation
gradually disappears with depth. By
THE USE OF CORE
DETERMINED FLUID
SATURATIONS
For low permeability
formations with core
water saturations as
high as 55% may be
considered productive;
For high permeability
formations, the upper
limit of water
saturation may be
slightly less than 50%.
DEFINITIONS OF SPECIAL
FLUID SATURATIONS
There are three special fluid
saturations associated with gas, oil,
and water that are of particular
importance and interest in reservoir
engineering:
- Critical gas saturation
- Residual oil saturation
- Irreducible water saturation
DEFINITIONS OF SPECIAL
FLUID SATURATIONS
These three saturations play a key role
in understanding the multiphase fluid
flow in porous media and the recovery
of hydrocarbon fluids from petroleum
reservoirs.
They actually constitute the end
points of relative permeability curves
which will be discussed later.
DEFINITIONS OF SPECIAL
FLUID SATURATIONS
Critical Gas Saturation
Due to high pressure and high
temperature conditions in petroleum
reservoirs, hydrocarbon gas is
generally dissolved in then liquid
phase.
As a result of fluid production from
reservoir, the reservoir pressure
begins to decline while the reservoir
temperature generally remains
DEFINITIONS OF SPECIAL
FLUID SATURATIONS
The continuous decline in pressure
results in the evolution of gas phase
when the pressure falls below a certain
value known as bubble point pressure.
Further fluid production cause increase
in gas saturation.
The gas phase, however, remains
immobile or is trapped until its
saturation exceeds a certain saturation
value, called critical gas saturation, Sgc.
DEFINITIONS OF SPECIAL
FLUID SATURATIONS
DEFINITIONS OF SPECIAL
FLUID SATURATIONS
Residual Oil Saturation
Residual oil saturation, Sor, is defined in
two different ways by reservoir
engineers:
- To some engineers, it is the oil
saturation remaining in the reservoir at
the end of primary production , or after
any water or gas displacement process.
- To others, it is the final oil saturation
in a reservoir rock sample of a
DEFINITIONS OF SPECIAL
FLUID SATURATIONS
DEFINITIONS OF SPECIAL
FLUID SATURATIONS
Irreducible Water Saturation
The term irreducible water saturation,
Swi, is defined as the minimum water
saturation that is present in a porous
medium.
- Interstitial water saturation,
- Initial water saturation,
- Connate water saturation,
- Capillary bound water
are other tems that are used
DEFINITIONS OF SPECIAL
FLUID SATURATIONS
The fluids in most petroleum reservoirs
have reached a state of equilibrium and
have become somewhat separated as
per their densities.
DEFINITIONS OF SPECIAL
FLUID SATURATIONS
Prior to reaching this state of
equilibrium, tiny pore spaces of the
petroleum reservoir rocks are
completely saturated with water in
which the hydrocarbons migrated from
a source rock.
DEFINITIONS OF SPECIAL
FLUID SATURATIONS
However, due to competition between
capillary and gravity forces, during
migration process, complete gravity
segregation between the fludi phases
never takes place, and the connate
water is distributed throughout the gas
and oil zones.