Chapter 2: Structure of the

atom
 2.1 Matter

1. Matter is anything that occupies space and

has mass.
 2.1 Matter

2. Matter can either exist as an element or a

compound.
 2.1 Matter

3. An element consists of only one type of

atom and the particles can be either atoms or
molecules.
 2.1 Matter

4.A compound is usually makes up of

two or more elements which are
chemically bonded together.
 2.1 Matter

5.
A compound is made up of either
molecules or ions.
 2.1 Matter

6. An atom is the smallest neutral particle of an

element.
 2.1 Matter

7. A molecule is a neutral particle made up of

either atoms of the same element or atoms of
different elements.
 2.1 Matter

8. An ion is a positively-charged or negatively-

charged particles.
 2.1 Matter

9. Particles in matter are in motion. This has

been confirmed by many experiments such as
diffusion of bromine.
 2.1 Matter

(II) Movement of particles In the liquid medium

1 A 500 cm3 beaker is filled until almost full.
2 With the aid of a straw, 2-3 small crystals of potassium
manganate(VII), KMnO4, crystals are placed at the base of
the beaker (see Figure 2.4(b)).
3 The apparatus is left aside for several hours. All
observations are recorded.
 2.1 Matter

(III) Movement of particles in the solid medium

1 A boiling tube with hot jelly solution (5% concentration)
is filled up. Allow the jelly to cool (It will set and become a
solid).
2 A copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4, crystal is placed on the
jelly, the boiling tube is closed with a cork and set it up as
shown in Figure 2.4(c).
3 It is then kept aside for two days. All observations are
recorded.
 2.1 Matter

Medium Observations Inference

Gaseous Liquidvapourisesintoabrowngas Brominegasdiffuses

whichslowlyfillsupthefirstjar,
beforemovingupwardsintothe
secondjar
Liquid ThepurplecolouroftheKMnO4
crystalsspreadslowlyuntil,after
several hours,thewholesolution
turnspurple
Solids ThebluecolouroftheCuSO4crystal
spreadsveryslowly upwardsthrough
thejelly
intotheairoccupying
thetwogasjar
Diffusionofparticlesis
slowerinliquidsthan
ingases
Diffusionofparticlesis
theslowestinsolids
 2.1 Matter

Discussion

(I)In gases
1 Bromine gas (brown vapour) is
composed of tiny and discrete
molecules which are constantly and
randomly moving in all directions.
 2.1 Matter

Discussion
(I)
In gases
2 The air in the two gas jars contains
empty spaces among the air particles.
 2.1 Matter

Discussion
(I) In gases
3 Bromine molecules move from the bottom
of the gas jar where they are highly
concentrated, towards the top, where they are
less concentrated. They do this by moving to
occupy the empty spaces among the air
particles until the bromine molecules are evenly
distributed in the gas jars.
 2.1 Matter

Discussion
(I) In gases
3
 2.1 Matter

Discussion
(II) In liquids
1 Potassium manganate(VII) crystals is made
up of tiny and discrete particle move slowly into
the spaces in between the water molecules.
 2.1 Matter

Discussion
(II) In liquids
2 Diffusion is slower because there are less
empty spaces in liquids than in gases.
 2.1 Matter

Discussion
(II) In liquids
 2.1 Matter

Discussion
(III)In solids
1 Copper(II) sulphate crystals are made
up of tiny, discrete particles too.
 2.1 Matter

Discussion
(III) In solids
2 The particles move upwards and
occupy the empty spaces in between
jelly particles.
 2.1 Matter

Discussion
(III) In solids
3 Diffusion is much slower in solids because
solid particles are arranged compactly with
very little space between particles.
 2.1 Matter

Discussion
(III) In solids
4. The rates of diffusion of particles are
highest in gases, lower in liquids and lowest
in solids.
 2.1 Matter

Discussion
(III) In solids
5. This is due to the different arrangement
of particles in solids, liquids and gases. The
particles of a solid are packed closely together
whereas the particles of a liquid are packed
slightly loose. The particles of a gas are very far
apart from each other and in a random
arrangement.
 2.1 Matter

Discussion
(III) In solids
Conclusion
1 Gases, liquids and solids are made
up of tiny and discrete particles, that are
in in constant motion.
 2.1 Matter

11. The rate of diffusion of gas particles

depends on their masses.
(a) Gases with low molecular masses diffuse
faster than those with high molecular masses.
 2.1 Matter

(b) Figure 2.8 shows the set-up of the

apparatus used to compare the rates of
diffusion of ammonia gas, NH3 and hydrogen
chloride gas, HCl.
 2.1 Matter

(c) A white solid ring formed nearer to the end

with the hydrogen chloride. The white solid is
ammonium chloride, NH4Cl, a compound
produced from the reaction of ammonia gas and
hydrogen chloride gas when they meet inside
the glass tube.
 2.1 Matter

(d) This experiment shows that the ammonia

molecules move faster than the hydrogen
chloride molecules.
 2.1 Matter

(e) Ammonia gas diffuses faster than hydrogen

chloride gas because the molecular mass of
ammonia is less than that of hydrogen chloride.
 2.1 Matter

12. The rate of diffusion is affected by the

temperature.
(a) The higher the temperature, the faster the
particles move and so the faster the diffusion.
(b) For example, the colour of potassium
manganate(VII) spreads through the water
much more quickly in hot water than in cold
water.

 The Kinetic theory of matter

1 The differences between a solid, liquid and gas

in terms of arrangement, movement, forces of
attraction and energy contents are as follows:
State Solid Liquid Gas
Arrangement
ofparticles

Theparticlesare Theparticlesare Theparticlesarevery

packed closely packed closely far apartfromeach
togetherinan togetherbutnotin otherandinarandom
orderlymanner. anorderly arrangement.
arrangement.
 The Kinetic theory of matter

1 The differences between a solid, liquid and gas

in terms of arrangement, movement, forces of
attraction and energy contents are as follows:
State Solid Liquid Gas
Movement Theparticlescan Theparticlescan Theparticlescan
ofparticles onlyvibrateand vibrate,rotateand vibrate,rotateand
rotateabouttheir movethroughout move freely.The
fixedpositions. theliquid.They rateofcollisionis
collideagainst greaterthantherate
eachother. ofcollisionina
liquid.
 The Kinetic theory of matter

1 The differences between a solid, liquid and gas

in terms of arrangement, movement, forces of
attraction and energy contents are as follows:
State Solid Liquid Gas
Forcesof Therearestrong Theparticlesare Thereareweak
attraction forcesbetweenthe heldtogetherby forcesbetweenthe
between particles. strongforcesbut particles.
particles weakerthanthe
forcesinasolid.
 The Kinetic theory of matter

1 The differences between a solid, liquid and gas

in terms of arrangement, movement, forces of
attraction and energy contents are as follows:
State Solid Liquid Gas
Energy Lowenergy Higherenergy Highestenergy
contentof contentas contentasparticles contentas
particles movementis canmoveeasily. movementisat
restricted. random.
The Kinetic theory of matter

2 According to the Kinetic Theory of matter,

matter is made up of particles which are
constantly moving. These particles collide with one
another and are affected when heat is provided.
The Kinetic theory of matter

3 At higher temperatures, the particles move at

a faster rate. At lower temperatures, they move
slowly.
The Kinetic theory of matter

4 All matter, existing in the form of solids,

liquids and gases, can change from one
state to another as a result of a change in
heat.
The Kinetic theory of matter

5 The inter-conversion of the states of matter is

given in the diagram below:
The Kinetic theory of matter

6 When a substance is heated or cooled its

physical state alters with a corresponding change
in energy:
(a) During melting, evaporation/ boiling and
sublimation (solid gas), heat is absorbed by
substance. In all these physical processes,
temperature rises.
The Kinetic theory of matter

6 When a substance is heated or cooled its

physical state alters with a corresponding change
in energy:
(b) During freezing, condensation and
sublimation (gas solid), heat energy is
released and temperature drops.