Logic

PRELIM
 Course Objectives:
At the end of the discussion one is expected
to;
1.Recognize the branches of Philosophy
> Bertrand Russels commandments of
Philosophy
> understand the origin and basis of
studying Logic
2. Acquire awareness on the nature, structure,
and importance of Logic
3. Familiarize oneself in the formation of concept
4. Differentiate comprehension from extension
5. Distinguish the types of terms
6. Differentiate judgment from simple
apprehension
7. Formulate correct and logical propositions
8. Differentiate the kinds of reasoning
9. Apply correctly the rules of categorical
reasoning
10. Manipulate truth tables
11. Determine truth from false statements.
 Love is blind.
God is love.
Therefore, God is blind.

The structure of the logical proposition

is correct! But the material logic, which
is concern with the meaning and
truthfulness of the concept and
sentences is in question!
 All men are rational;
Plato is a man.
Hence, Plato is rational.

> This argument is valid because it

follows a correct sequence/pattern.
 All men are rational;
Plato is a man.
Therefore, Sam is rational.

> This argument does not follow rules

because it has no sequence. Therefore
this argument is formally invalid.
 Mayaman ako kapag
kasama ka, kase mahirap
kapag wala ka!
Part I. Logic and its Circumstance

Chapter I: Logic and Philosophy

A. The Branches of Philosophy
B. 10 Commandments of Philosophy (B.
Russel)
C. History of Logic
D. The Legal Basis on the Study of Logic
Chapter II: The Nature of Logic

A. The Essential Concern of Logic

B. The Different Definitions of Logic
C. Logic as Art and Science
D. Structure of Logic
F. The Importance of Logic
Chapter III: Language and Definitions
Part II: The Three Mental Operation
Chapter IV: Simple Apprehension
A. Definition
B. The Formation of Concept
C. Concept and Phantasm
D. Comprehension and Extension
as Logical Properties
E. Kinds of Concept
F. Term> Basic Component of Proposition
Grading System

Major Examinations 40%

Written outputs 25%
Class Standing 25%
(observed values and ethics developed)
Attendance 10%
____
Total 100%
 Grading System
Final Course Grade Computation
Prelim Grade 30%
Midterm Grade 30%
Final Grade 40%
_____
100%
 INTRO TO PHILOSOPHY
According to Socrates, Philosophy started
from a simple process called
WONDERING
The curious nature of the ancient people of
Greece has helped them to initiate studies
and researches to feed their doubting and
perplexed minds with philosophical ideas.
With the growing intensity to understand
everything that they encountered and
experienced in life, hey gradually became
lovers of true wisdom.
 THALES
Regarded by Aristotle to be the first to
make a philosophical articulation
regarding the basic stuff of the
universe.
His idea of water or moist was the first
principle of life which inspired other
Greeks to find more answers and
formulated new concepts which were
solely based on the dictum popularized
by Socrates.
 PHILEI SOPHIA
N

(Nominal definition)
It is the science of all things naturally
knowable to mans unaided powers, as far
as these things are studied in their deepest
causes and reasons.
A science- set forth data systematically
Of all things naturally knowable-
investigates data through mans unaided
knowing powers from the data gathered
by his senses.
In so far as these things are studied in
their deepest causes and reasons-
seeks the ultimate causes and reasons of
things. UNMOVED MOVER. Since
everything is moved by something.
Goals of Philosophy:
1.Philosophy tries to discover the nature of
truth as well as the nature of knowledge.
Nature- the essence, quality, attribute of a
particular situation, event, or thing.
Nature of Truth- factors that make a
particular situation is true.
Importance of Philosophy:
People can clarify what they are
believing
Rejection of Philosophy-is an act of
philosophizing
We can be stimulated to think of ultimate
question
 Philosophy promises us better
understanding of ourselves
It helps the student to systematize and
evaluate the uses of information that he
or she seeks from various sources.
Branches of Philosophy:
1.Logic :is the science and art of
correct thinking and reasoning.
Logic Rules for Thinking
The systematic principles
(or rules) for thinking
rationally.
Inferences are made by
construction of
Arguments
Rules of Logic
determine which
arguments are VALID
and which are FALACIES
Logic
Logic as the science of correct thinking.

Thinking refers to any mental activity

such as wishing, planning,
comprehending, recalling or even
daydreaming.
> the mental process of forming a
new truth or conclusion from a given
data or information. This mental process
is called INFERENCE.
l. LOGIC AND ITS CIRCUMSTANCE:
Chapter I: logic and philosophy
Logic (from the Greek logik) is the
philosophical study of valid reasoning. It
is used in most intellectual activities, but
is studied primarily in the disciplines of
philosophy, mathematics, semantics, and
computer science. It examines general
forms that arguments may take, which
forms are valid, and which are fallacies.
 Logic was studied in several
ancient civilizations, including
India, China, and Greece. In the
West, logic was established as a
formal discipline by Aristotle, who
gave it a fundamental place in
philosophy.
 Inference is a natural activity for man
as a rational being. At times, without
conscious effort, we jump into
conclusions based on what we see or
hear or experience.
Cite an example!
 Mans ability to reason out does not
necessarily follows that our inference are
correct. It is but natural for us to commit
mistakes but logic prepares us for our
most important task- THINKING!
However; it will not guarantee that
learning the rules of inference or
reasoning does not make us prone to
commit mistakes.
With logic, we are trained to become
better thinkers.
Critical thinking is what a college education
is all about. We are all challenged to
question, examine and evaluate ideas
and information.
We are here not just to absorb information
and acquire knowledge but more than
that we are expected to understand what
we see, hear and read.
Therefore, students of logic are
encouraged not merely on WHAT TO
THINK! BUT HOW TO THINK!
In so doing, we will be able to effectively
deal with problems, analyze issues and
make decisions.
 What Is Critical Thinking?

CRITICAL often carries a negative

connotation implying excessive fault-
finding as when a politician from the
opposition party is said to be critical to a
particular politician or organization.
BSA-2A

today
 CRITICAL THINKING is not focused
on finding faults or weaknesses in a
particular person or thing but it is focused
on exercising objective, fair and skilled
judgment and analysis of ideas, beliefs
and arguments.
The purpose is not to put down a
person through argument but to correct
what is wrong and find out what is right.
 Dont need to
Analyzing memorize
Evaluating Problem
ProblemSolving
Solving definitions! Just
understand and
Decision
Reasoning
Decision Making
Making practice the core
critical thinking
skills
emphasized in
this course.

Critical Left Right

Thinking
What is Critical Thinking

Reasoning

Analyzing CRITICAL Evaluating

THINKING
SKILLS

Decision Making Problem Solving

 Fairness
Critical thinking demands that our thinking be
fair.
Open-minded
Impartial
Free of distorting biases and preconceptions

Difficult to
achieve, but
you must try!

Fair-mindedness is an essential
attribute of a Critical Thinker.
 Benefits of Critical Thinking
Examples:
Academic Performance
understand the arguments and beliefs of others
Critically evaluating those arguments and
beliefs
Develop and defend one's own well-supported
arguments and beliefs.
Workplace
Helps us to reflect and get a deeper
understanding of our own and others decisions
Encourage open-mindedness to change
Aid us in being more analytical in solving
problems
 Benefits of Critical Thinking
Daily life
Helps us to avoid making foolish personal
decisions.
Promotes an informed and concerned
citizenry capable of making good decisions
on important social, political and economic
issues.
Aids in the development of autonomous
thinkers capable of examining their
assumptions, dogmas, and prejudices.
 Barriers to Critical Thinking
Five Powerful Barriers to Critical Thinking:
I am probably
Self-centered thinking
self-interested thinking the greatest
Egocentrism self-serving bias thinker since
Socrates!

Group-centered thinking

Sociocentrism Group bias

Conformism
Beliefs that are presumed to be true
without adequate evidence or
Unwarranted justification
Assumptions Assumption
Stereotyping

Wishful Believing that something is true because

one wishes it were true.
Thinking
The truth is just a matter of opinion
Relativism
Relativistic Subjectivism
Thinking Cultural relativism
 Group Activity
Break into groups of 4-5, and then discuss, identify and rank the
Top 10 characteristics/traits/behaviours of an EXCELLENT:
Dr. Yoda was an excellent
teacher, because he
1. LECTURER engaged our mind, had
activities, etc.
2. STUDENT

Choose one member of your group to take notes and be the group
reporter.
10 min Brainstorm together and identify 10 characteristics for each item above.
(e.g. try to remember the best lecturer(s) you have ever had and then identify
their characteristics). .

5 min Prioritize and rank the chosen characteristics of each item above according to
importance (e.g. Top 10).

15 min Group presentation & discussion

- The Group reporter must submit their findings in hard copy format after the
class (use template) or soft-copy format to the lecturer before next class.
 Characteristic of a critical thinker

Critical Thinkers Uncritical Thinkers

Are honest with

Pretend they
themselves,
acknowledging know more than
what they dont they do, ignore
know, recognizing their limitations,
their limitations, and assume their
and being watchful views as error-
of their own errors. free.
 Characteristic of a critical thinker
Critical Thinkers Uncritical Thinkers
Base judgment on Base judgments on
evidence rather than first impressions
personal and gut reactions.
preferences,
They are
deferring judgment
unconcerned about
whenever evidence
is insufficient. They
the amount or
revise judgments quality of evidence
when new evidence and cling to earlier
reveals error. views steadfastly.
 Critical Thinkers Uncritical Thinkers
Are interested in Are pre-occupied
other peoples with self and their
ideas, so are own opinions, and
willing to read so are unwilling to
and listen pay attentions to
others views. At
attentively, even
the first sight of
when they tend
disagreement, they
to disagree with tend to think, How
the other person. can I refute this?
 Critical Thinkers Uncritical Thinkers
Practice restraint,
controlling their Tend to follow
feelings rather than their feelings and
being controlled by act impulsively.
them, and thinking Tend to engage in
before acting. group think
Think uncritically
independently and following the
are not afraid to beliefs and values
disagree with group of the crowd.
opinion.
Exercise 1
1. Which of the characteristics
mentioned do you think is your
strongest critical thinking trait?
Why?
2. Which is your weakest?
Why? What could you do to
improve in this regard?
Branches of Philosophy:

2. Ethics is the study of the nature

and morality of human acts.
 Questions:
Ethics 1. How should we live?
2. What is good and
evil?
3. What is the best way
to live?
4. What is Justice?
5. Is right and wrong the
same everywhere or
different everywhere?
Ethics
 Ethics is a branch of philosophy
which assesses explanatory theories
concerning the moral rightness or
wrongness of different kinds of actions,
as well as the moral goodness or
badness of different kinds of emotions,
intensions and states of character.
Branches of Philosophy:
3. Epistemology: On certain and
true knowledge, and its principles.
> is the study of human
knowledge.
Epistemology - explores the nature and
limitations of knowledge
Definition of knowledge
Investigates how knowledge is obtained
Explores the relationship between
belief, truth and knowledge
Questions:
What is knowledge?
How is knowledge
acquired?
How do we know
what we know?
 Epistemology (from Greek -
episteme-, "knowledge, science" +
"logos") or theory of knowledge
It is the branch of philosophy
concerned with the nature and scope
(limitations) of knowledge.
Epistemological Questions
Branches of Philosophy:

4. Metaphysics- is the science of

the ultimate principles and
properties of real beings. It is the
study of being as being.
 A. General Metaphysics: On
beings in general, on the different
reasons and principles of the reality of
things.
a. ontology- is the science of
being in its most general aspects.
 B. Special metaphysics

a. Cosmology or Philo. of
Nature: On the material world, and the
ultimate constituent principles of
material beings.
>the study of inanimate
physical beings.
 b. Philosophical Psychology:
On living being and the principle of life,
on the nature of the vital operations
and of the vital powers, and their
classification.
c. Theodicy- On the First Cause
of Contingent Beings and of emergent
reality.
- the study of the essence
and existence of God based mainly on
reason.
5. Aesthetics- the study of beauty,
its nature and appreciation.
6. Social/political Philosophy:
On the sociality of man, on the
nature of human society and its
principles.
- the study of man and his
place in society.
 BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY
1. Epistemology studies the nature of human knowledge
2. Metaphysics studies the nature of being and beings
3. Ethics studies the morality of human act
4. Psychology studies the human mind and its condition
5. Cosmology studies the nature of the universe
6. Social Philosophy studies man and his society
7. Theodicy studies the nature of God and the defense
of Gods goodness
8. Logic study of the fundamental principles which
govern the true nature of correct inferential thinking
Purpose of Philosophy: A lover of
wisdom finds satisfaction and delight in
philosophical thinking or reasoning:
1.Understand oneself (sarili)
2.Discover ones inner self (loob)
3.Recognize ones otherness (social being)
4.Accept oneself as part of nature, of the
world (microcosm)
5.With the aid of reason, believe in the
existence of infinite wisdom
B. The Ten Commandments of Philosophy
by: Bertrand Russell

1. Do not feel certain of anything.

2. Do not feel it's worthwhile to hold on
to a belief by concealing contrary
evidence, for that evidence will surely
come to light. (lay down your cards!)
3. Never discourage thinking
4. Overcome opposition via argument,
not force. A victory based upon force is
unreal and illusionary.
5. Have no respect for the authority of
others, for there will always be counter-
authorities.
6. Don't use force to suppress opinions
which you think are dangerous, for if
you do they will surely suppress you.
7. Don't fear being different and
eccentric, for every mainstream idea
was at one time eccentric and
different.

8. Find pleasure in intelligent, not

passive, agreement.
9. Be scrupulously truthful, even
when the truth is inconvenient, for it
is always more inconvenient when
you try to conceal truth.

10. Don't feel envious of the

happiness of those living in a fool's
paradise, for only a fool would see it
as true happiness.
C. The Legal basis on the study of
Logic.
In the 1987 Philippine Constitution.
Section 3, paragraph 2 of Article XIV
entitled Education, Science and
Technology, Arts, Culture and Sports
states: All educational institution
shall . . . encourage critical and
creative thinking. . .
Chapter ll: The Nature of Logic.

Branches of logic
1. FORMAL LOGIC
-concerned with the aspect of form which
has something to do with the correctness
or sequence or the following of rules
Ex. All men are mortal
but Pedro is a man
therefore Pedro is mortal
 2. MATERIAL LOGIC
-concerned with the aspect of subject
matter or content or truth of the argument
Example: A ruler is 12-inch long
Pres. GMA is a ruler
Therefore, Pres. GMA is 12-inch long
KINDS:
- Deductive Logic: from more to less
- Inductive Logic: implies a sense of
probability
 B. The Different Definitions of Logic.

LOGIC: from Greek word LOGIKE,

coined by Zeno.
> Logus meaning word.
> Logic is both science and art.
> Philosophical science of correct
reasoning or inferential thinking
 Is the study of the relationship
between premises and conclusions
of arguments.
Is the study of methods, and
principles used in distinguishing
correct from incorrect reasoning.
 Deals with arguments and
inferences, its main purpose is
to provide methods for
distinguishing those which are
logically correct from those
which are not.
LOGIC: derived from the Greek word
logos which means - study, reason or
discourse.

LOGIC is the science and art of correct

thinking

- it is a SCIENCE because it is a
systematized body of logical truths and
principles governing correct thinking
 Logic is understood as the science
and art of correct thinking and reasoning
(Cruz, 1995).
 Logic as an art, it guides mans
reasoning so he can proceed with order
and ease and without error in the
constructive activity of making definitions
of terms, propositions and inferences.
( Gualdo, 2000)
As an ART, logic is a technique and it
teaches how to make a good argument .
 Logic is considered a science for 3
major reasons:
1. a body of certain and proven
knowledge,
2. this body of knowledge is obtained
and arranged in a systematic manner,
3. it is objective and possesses
general principles of argumentation and
proof, which can be formulated precisely
and communicated to others.
 D. The Importance of studying
LOGIC:
1. Logic improves our reasoning ability. We
do not fail to admire someone who can
explain things clearly.
2. Logic makes science possible. This is
how Aristotle regards Logic as an
organon(tool) for discovering truth and
defending it.
3. Logic helps us recognize faulty
reasoning and thus avoid them.
4. Logic prepares us for the task of
leadership. King Solomon, for
example, was admired for his
wisdom.
5. Logic promotes greater understanding
among people.
6. Logic hastens the success of a
professional.
7. Logic leads to just laws.
8. Logic protects society from chaos.
9. Logic promises an orderly life.
10. Logic leads to happiness.
ll. THE 3 MENTAL OPERATIONS
 The three essential operations of the
intellect
Mental Products External Signs
Operations
1. SIMPLE CONCEPT ORAL AND
APPREHENSION WRITTEN TERMS
2.JUDGMENT MENTAL ORAL AND
PROPOSITION WRITTEN
PROPOSITIONS
3. REASONING MENTAL ORAL AND
AGREEMENT WRITTEN
OR ARGUMENTS
DISAGREEME
NT
SIMPLE APPREHENSION is not that
simple! The process of generating
concept begins with the external senses
sight, hearing, smell, touch and taste.
( concept of John Locke)
The external senses provides the
mind with percepts that acts as the
impressions of the physical qualities of a
thing.
 The intellect abstracts or separates
from the percepts the attributes which a
thing has in common with others but not
with some others. These abstracted
attributes constitute the concept.
ACTIVITY:
Select 5 students and generate the attributes to arrive to a concept as MAN
There was a time that concept was
inborn. The philosopher, Socrates,
referred to concept as gifts from God.

Likewise, Plato believed that each

person carries from birth exemplar
models of everything he may know in
life.
5 senses- served
as a bridge to the
external world
External senses comes
contact w/ object it
acts upon the senses.
CONCEPT:
Just as food is digested by the stomach and
turned into energy, the sight we see, the
sound we hear, the sensation we feel, the
fragrance we smell, the savor we taste are
taken in the mind and turned into concepts.
Thus, concepts are the thoughts, the sum of
which makes up knowledge, the truths we
know.
It is an idea- starts with an outside reality
and apprehended by the senses
CONCEPT & ESSENCE:
CONCEPT> is the representation of the
essence of a thing in the mind.
> is a mental representation because
it signifies the thing as it exists in reality.
> it is a product of simple
apprehension the mental act by which
we grasp the meaning of a thing w/o
affirming or denying anything about it.
The process by which the mind grasps the
essence of a thing is called ABSTRACTION.
It is through the mental process of abstraction
that we are able to form concepts.
Let us say that we do not have a concept of a
tree yet, and we happen to look at a guava
tree. Upon looking at the guava tree, what we
have is not a concept yet but a sense-image
of the object (guava tree).
A sense-image is a representation of the
accidents of a thing in the senses. By
looking at a particular guava tree, our
senses grasps its color, shape, height
etc. These things grasped by the senses
are called accidents.

Accidents are the individuating

characteristics which serve to distinguish
each individual thing from other things.
(differentiating factor/uniqueness).
ESSENCE is what a thing is in itself, its
nature. Anything that exists has its own
essence.
Ex. Suppose - we are looking at two other
objects: a narra tree and a pine tree. Our
senses will tell us that the objects we see
are different because they have different
sense-image: they differ in height, shape,
texture, etc. But our mind, after grasping
the common characteristics between
these objects, will tell us that they are all
the same and that they are all trees. The
set of characteristics common to this
group of objects is called essence.
 Kinds of concept
1.First Intention: we understand what the
thing is according to what it is in reality
Ex. A dog is an animal.
Second Intention: we understand not only
what the thing is according to what it is in
reality but also how it is in the mind
Ex. Monte Claro is the name of the
subdivision where I live.
 Kinds of concept
2.Concrete Concepts: expresses a form and
a subject.
> it signifies an individual thing existing with
a specific nature or quality. Such is concept
of man, dog, chair, car.
Abstract Concepts: has a form only , has
intangible quality, that which cannot be
perceived by the senses
Ex. Beauty in a woman, humanity,
animality, freedom, legality, manliness.
 Kinds of concept
3.Absolute Concepts: signifies the meaning
of a concept, all definitions are absolute
concepts. It can never be otherwise.
Ex. A triangle is a three-sided figure.
Connotative Concepts: signifies a
characteristic existing in the concept, all
modifiers are connotative concepts
Ex. Drummer boy
Kinds of concept
4.Positive Concepts: signifies the existence
or possession of something
Ex. happy
Negative Concepts: signifies the absence
of something
Ex. Sad, death
 Difference of phantasm &
concept
Phantasm Concept

1. Particular- applies 1. Universal- it

to the image of a stands for all
particular thing. i.e. things sharing the
the car applies only same essence.
to this particular i.e. concept of a
red car and flashy CAR! applies to
car as you would any car.
like to imagine.
2. MATERIAL 2. IMMATERIAL because
it is an abstraction from
because it is the the physical qualities of
picture of the a thing.
physical qualities of 3. PERMANENT-stands
a thing. for an essence which is
unchanging.
3. VARIABLE
i.e. mother - female
physical qualities
who gives birth is true
change and even at all times, but the
our memory of phantasm changes and
things fade in time. varies from person to
person.
Other names of Concept:

1.Idea- how the object appears in

the mind.
2.Species- the Expressed
intelligible Species
3.Notion- thing is known by the
concept
4.Word- the mind utters it
5. Term- Ideogenesis
6. Representation- vicar object of

the mind
7. Likeness- similarity of the
object
8. Intention- mind tends toward
the object
9. Reason- the principle of
knowing a thing
 Concept is a formal
sign because it conveys
to our mind the
knowledge or nature of
a thing.
2 Properties of Concept:
1. Comprehension is the sum total of
attributes constituting the essence of a
thing.
i.e. A. the comprehension of the
concept man includes: substance,
sentient, living, animal and rational.
B. the comprehension of the
concept triangle includes the attributes
of a plane with three sides.
 The comprehension must be the
sum of all the attributes making up the
nature of a thing, otherwise the
concept stands for something else. It is
not accurate to say, for example, that
man is an animal without mentioning
about his being rational.
Likewise, logic is not just a
science, but the science about
correct thinking.
2. Extension - is the sum of things or
inferiors signified by the concept on
the basis of its comprehension.
i.e. the extension of the concept
man includes, Sam, Peter, Paul,
John, Mary, Sophia, Zeki, this man,
some men, All Filipinos. The things
that fall within the extension of a
concept are called inferiors, while the
concept itself is called superior.
 i.e. food(superior concept) rice,
fish, meat milk, fruit (inferior concept).
i.e. animal(superior concept) dog,
horse, parrot, lion, man (inferior
concept).
Note:
The inferiors of a concept are
related to one another as
COORDINATES. There are no
superior and inferior among the
coordinate concepts. Because dog
and horse are coordinates, we can
not predicate one with the other.
 Therefore, it is wrong to say: A dog
is a horse. or vice versa.
Instead, it is correct to say: A dog
is an animal. A horse is an animal. in
this case, the ANIMAL is the superior
concept and horse and dog are the
inferior concepts.
Concrete and Abstract Concept:
All concepts are abstract in the sense
that they are present in the mind. We may
speak of abstract concepts as opposed to
concrete concepts. This distinction shows
how we regard a concept as a symbol or
formal sign.
A concrete concept signifies an
individual thing existing with a specific
nature or quality. Such is concept of man,
dog, chair, clouds or car.
Concrete and Abstract Concept:
An Abstract concept signifies a nature
or quality thought of as entity distinct and
separate from the individual. Such is the
concept manliness, humanity, animality,
freedom, beauty or legality.
4 Classifications of Concepts:
A. According to Comprehension:

1. Simple and Compound: A simple

concept expresses a single aspect of a
thing, such as being, essence, action,
and potency. A compound concept
expresses two or more aspects, such as
MAN, PHILOSOPHER, Filipino and
science.
2. Absolute and Connotative: Absolute
concept expresses a substance, a thing
existing on its own right. Example:
plant, house, sea, water, sky and earth.
Both concrete and abstract concepts
are absolute concepts.
Connotative concepts expresses quality
which adheres to an individual
substance, such as strong, clever, rider,
teacher, student, worker or speaker.
 3. Univocal and Analogous:
Univocal concepts expresses an aspect
which is realized by different
individuals in the same manner.
Example: Student has the same
meaning when attributed to any
student of any school.
Analogous concepts: expresses an aspect
which is realized by different individuals
in a partly the same and partly different
meaning.
Example 1: the concept beautiful
means differently when attributed to a
woman, a dress, a scenery, or a statue.
Example 2: father may mean differently
depending on the context being used.
 4 Classifications of Concepts:
B. According to Extension:
1. Singular concept signifies one specific
individual, such as Peter, this girl, my
father, or the valedictorian of the class.
2. Universal Concept signifies all the
individuals in the extension of such
concept, such as all men, each student,
every candidate, or none of them.
3. Particular concept signifies an
indeterminate number of individuals,
such as some boys, few books, many
passengers or birds.

4. Collective concept signifies a group,

although not the individual members of
that group, such as family, crowd,
audience, class or congregation.
 4 Classifications of Concepts:
C. According to Origin:
1. Real and Arbitrary:
Real concept signifies a real object.
Example: concept of a boyfriend, sun,
moon, and stars. They are concepts that
exist in reality.
Arbitrary Concepts signify imaginary
object, like mermaid, Darna, a flying horse,
a talking dog or a gold mountain.
2. Immediate and Mediate:
Immediate concepts are those that
derived from direct experience of
things such as school, parents,
teachers, friend, food or sports.
Mediate concept are those derived
from other concepts or sources of
information such as God, angel, devil,
heaven and hell. (there is no
immediate experience of the thing)
Aristotles definition:

Universal is that which has an

aptitude(capability/capacity) to be
in many.
e.g. animal has an aptitude to
many.
- animal ( dog, cat, rat,
etc.)
Causes of Universals

1.Abstraction- from a Latin word-

ab trahere (to strip)

2. Predicables- are the diverse

mode of universality
 Notion of Predicables:
Because of the human manner of
knowing, our ideas can be divided into
different parts (for example, ANIMAL
is divided into rational and irrational.
Furthermore; some concepts are
included in other concepts: the
concept of gold includes metal.
 Predicables refer to the different
modes of attributing a concept to a
subject, depending on the subjects
nature. White for example, is an
accident with regard to man (pwede
namang black), but it is a specific
property of a snow! ( theres no
such thing as black snow).
 Predicables are the different kinds
of logical universals, that is,
universal concepts that may be
applied to many subjects. Taken as
classifications, they are universal
concepts bearing different kinds of
logical relationship to the subject.
 Genus
A universal which is referred essentially
but incompletely to many that differ
specifically among themselves. e.g.
operation
1. Genus a universal term that
expresses the essential feature which a
things has in common with other species;
e.g., man is an animal. The predicate
animal is the genus or generic feature
which man shares with the brutes.
Species
A universal which is referred essentially
and completely to its inferiors.
e.g. man
3. Species a universal term that
expresses the whole essence or nature
of the subject. It embodies both the
genus and the specific difference as
constituent or essential features of the
subject; e.g., man is a RATIONAL
ANIMAL.
Difference- a universal which is referred to
many as the qualifying or determining part of
their essence.
e.g. rational animal > It s a universal term
that expresses the essential feature which
distinguishes the essence of the subject from
the essence of other things with which the
subject shares the same genus; e.g., man is
a rational being. Rationality is the essential
feature which distinguishes the essence or
nature of man from that of brutes.
Property

A universal which is
predicated of many
accidentally and
necessarily.

e.g. spiritual
 Property a universal term that
expresses a feature that does not form
part of the essence of the subject, but
necessarily derives from its essence in an
exclusive and distinctive manner; e.g.,
man is a being capable of education, of
wonderment, of religious sentiment, etc.
Logically considered, property is not any
attribute that derives from or goes with the
nature of man but only a feature that is
exclusive of the essential nature of man.
 Accident
A universal which is
predicated to many non
essentially and
contingently.

actions
5. Accident a universal term that
expresses a feature which is not part
of the essence of the subject, not
necessarily connected with it, but is
found in the subject only in an
accessional or contingent manner;
e.g., Pedro is healthy, handsome or
virtuous. Contingent means that the
feature may be present or may be
absent from the subject.
Synoptic Schema of Predicables
Questions: Examples: Predicables:

1. What is John? Man/rational animal Species

2. To what immediately,
more general class does
he belong? Animal Genus
3. What kind of animal
is he? Rational Difference
4. As man, what
attributes does he
has? Can see/can hear Property
5. What attributes does
he have which are not
necessary to him, as man? Tall/white Accident
 F. Term as Basic Component of
Proposition
TERM > the verbal manifestation of the
ideas. It is defined as a conventional sign
that is expression of an idea.
It is a sign
A sign is something that leads to the
knowledge of something else. For a sign to
be able to carry out its task, there must be
a recognizable connection between it and
the reality it designates.
The term
The external representation of a
concept and the ultimate structural
element of a proposition.

- external representation means it is

always a sign of a concept or an idea
- ultimate structural element means it
could either be the subject or predicate
of a proposition
 Quantities of terms
1. SINGULAR term refers to one specific
thing or person.
i.e. The chief Justice, The eldest son,
the inventor of airplane.
- Proper nouns ex. Raul, La Union,
batangas
- Nouns modified by adjective to the
superlative degree ex. most charming
 Quantities of terms
- Demonstratives ex. this book, that
door
- Collective nouns ex. flock, class
- The article the ex. The man in blue
shorts
- Personal pronouns I, you, he, she,
we, they, my, your, our
 Quantities of terms
2. UNIVERSAL term refers to the total
number of individuals or inferiors within
the extension of a concept as indicated
by words like the ff:
All, every, each, or the negative none,
nothing.
such as: all children, every minute, or
none of them.
Ex. All men are mortal.
 Quantities of terms
3. PARTICULAR term refers to a portion
of a total number of individuals within
the extension of a concept as indicated
by words like Some, several, many,
few or not all
such as: some books, many
passengers, not all men.
 Quantities of terms
4. INDEFINITE TERM refers to
undetermined or unspecified number
of individual, such as: elder,
substitute, guest. It does not
explicitly give information regarding
the total number of individuals.
 Kinds of terms
1. UNIVOCAL term - having one and the
same meaning. They mean exactly the
same thing in the last two occurrences
i.e. photosynthesis, anthropology, atom,
typewriter, girl, automobile, cellular
phone.
terms are univocal if they mean exactly
the same thing in at least two
occurrences.
 Kinds of terms
example: a) The pope is a man.
b) Mao Tse Tung is a man.
NOTE: Man in example 1 means exactly
the same as man in example 2.
2. EQUIVOCAL term having two or
several unrelated meanings.
i.e. pitcher ( may mean: a baseball player,
a jar, or water container).
Terms are equivocal if they have different
meanings in at least two occurrences.
Example: You see her BEND over the
flowers at the BEND of the road.
(The first refers to the movement of the
body; the second to a turn in the road.)
3. ANALOGOUS term whose meaning
applies partly the same and partly
different to several things.
i.e. healthy (food, exercise, climate or
friend)
friend (a companion, an
acquaintance, a person, a dog, a book)
Ex. head does not have the same
meaning in head of the family
 ANALOGOUS terms are analogous if
they have partly the same and partly
different meanings in at least two
occurrences.
 KINDS of analogous term:
1. Intrinsic analogy: used in
technical terms and as definitions.
Analogous terms are intrinsic if the
concepts they signify are realized in all
their analogues.
 EXAMPLE: Animal is an irrational,
living, material substance. It is found in
all its analogues such as dogs, cats,
horses. We call such creatures
animals because they are animals
intrinsically and as they are.
(Regardless whether you are
considering your dog/pet to be a part or
member of your family.)
 Extrinsic analogy: used as a metaphor
Analogous terms are extrinsic if the
concepts they signify are realized only
in metaphorical concepts.
 EXAMPLE: 1. The heart of the forest.
2. The mouth of the river.
3. We pass Bridals veil along scenic
Kennon road (to Baguio). Here, it is not
really a brides veil but a waterfall; it is
so called because somehow its
appearance reminds people of one.
 KINDS of analogous term:
2. Analogy of Proportionality:
analogous terms are proportional if they
are similar.
Ex. The stepmother is cruel.
The sea is cruel.
 KINDS of analogous term:
Analogy of Attribution: analogous terms
are attribute depending on the
relationship of the secondary to its
primary analogue.
 Example:
1. The word beautiful in philosophy
originally refers to anything that
arouses delight in the beholder and
usually refers to the sense of sight.
Now, we may have beautiful singing,
a beautiful day, the beautiful people
(when referring to high society).
Term is a conventional sign.
It is a conventional sign if the
connection is arbitrary set by man such
as terms, language and writing. A term
is a conventional sign since it is a
result of a common agreement among
men.
Term is expressive of an idea.
Since an idea is abstract, it is
made concrete through the use of
terms.
Classification
of
Terms
A. According to comprehension

1.Simple- it expresses only one

conceptual note.
Ex. Truth- conformity between the
intellect and the thing.
Being- an existential thing
falsity- non-conformity
between the intellect and the thing
that is.
2. Compound- it expresses more than
one conceptual note.
Ex. Man may be expressed as
rational animal
human being
person
God- Infinite
Prime mover
Intelligent designer
Uncaused cause
3. Concrete- it expresses something which
has attributes that are capable of being
perceived through the senses.
Ex. Ball, can, desk, shirt, stone. table

4. Abstract- it expresses something as

separated from any single object. It
denotes the general attributes of many
objects.
Ex. Happiness, heights, knowledge,
perfection.
 Our idea of a stone is obtained
through the exercise of our senses.
But we may abstract its qualities
such as hardness,, roundness,
heaviness, and regard them as
separate from the thing itself.
It is likewise important as well as
interesting to note that an idea may be
concrete in one sense and abstracts in
another.

Ex: Claire wears a precious gem.

GEM is a concrete term.
Ex: Claire is a gem of the universe,
The term becomes abstract.
B. According to Object.

1. Real- it expresses something

that has existential
actuality, whether
positive or negative.

Examples: chair, table

scandal unemployment
2. Logical- it is used as
a conceptual
device to facilitate
learning.

Examples: subject circle

dark death
3. Imaginary- it has no
correspondence
in reality but is merely a
concoction of the mind.

Examples: spider man, darna

flying carpet
talking tree
 A term may carry different
meanings in its different uses.
When used in a given proposition
however, it stands for a definite
meaning. This relation that is
obtained between the term and
what it specifically designates in a
proposition is called
SUPPOSITION.
SUPPOSITION is the property of
terms acquired from their use in
the proposition.
 Supposition is classified
under the division of Logic
called Semantics which is the
science of meaning of words
as contrasted with Phonetics
which is the science of
sounds of words. (soul & sole)
 It is important that we
consider the various meanings a
term can stand for in a
particular proposition. In
syllogistic thinking, the same
supposition has to be retained
all the way through to avoid
shift in meaning.
Supposition can either be:
A.Proper supposition
1. Material supposition
2. Formal supposition
a. Logical b. Real
B. Improper supposition
Proper supposition

- stands for the

proper object in the
real order. This can
either be material or
formal.
1. Material supposition stands for the
term itself as either written or spoken
without referring to its meaning.
Is that which uses a word for itself
alone, for its spoken or written sign,
not for its real meaning.
Ex. God is a three-letter word;
God rhymes with nod; God is a
one-syllable word. The word God
occurs in quotation marks in order to
assert something about the word
God rather than about God.
2. Formal supposition stands for the
real meaning of the term. It can be
logical or real.
Is that which uses a word for its real
meaning.
EXAMPLE: A square is a rectangle
with all four sides equal.
 2.1 Logical supposition it is
the way the mind thinks it to be.
Examples:
1. Man is the topic of out discussion.
2. Man is a concept.
3. Man is a universal idea.
 2.2 Real supposition - stands for
the things itself.
Examples:
1. All men are mortal.
2. All men are bodily substance.
3. All men are two-legged individuals.
4. A square is a rectangle with all four
sides equal.
 Predicaments refers to
the set of fundamental ideas
in terms of which all other
ideas can be expressed.
They are concepts capable of
classifying All other
concepts. Aristotle called
them categories.
THE TEN PREDICAMENTS
The first predicament is that
of Substance. The other nine
predicaments are
classifications of the so-called
metaphysical accidents,
which are non-essential
modification of the substance.
1. Substance- It is that which has its
existence not in another but in and for
itself. It has its own meaning and value in
itself. Thus, in contrast to the accidents, it
can be defined without reference to a
subject.

Examples:
Plant dog man
Chair table tree
 SUBSTANCE is a being that
exists by or for itself and does not
need any other subject in order to
exist. Ex. Man; house. It answers the
question who or what is this thing?
2. Quantity- the modification of a
substance as regards the effect of
having extension and divisibility.
Examples: 50 kg., 25 ft. long
100 pesos 200 sq. m.
 Quantity an accident which
determines the spatial extension of a
thing in the form of magnitude or
multitude.
Ex. The pole is 10 feet long. It answers
the question how much or how big?
3. Quality- formal determination of a
substance which may be a habit,
disposition, capacity or the form and
figure of a thing.
Examples: intelligent, hot, strong,
figure of woman, form of a
statue
 Quality is an accident which
specifies or characterizes a thing.
Ex. Intelligent; brave. It answers
the question what sort of a thing
it is?
4. Relation- the manner in which
substance refer to each
other.
Examples: father teacher
ruler husband
Relation is an accident which
logically or really connects one thing
with another. Ex. Fatherhood; taller
than. It answers the question to what
or to whom does it refer to?
5. Action- production of an effect in
another.
Examples: running swimming
walking dancing
Action is the motion of the
substance commonly inducing a
result on doing something in another
time. Ex. Painting; running. It answers
the question what hr is doing?
6. Passion- reception of an effect
from another.
Examples: being killed, are burned
was shot, being accepted

Passion sometimes, it is called

reaction. Ex. Being heated; being killed. It
answers the question what does it do to
another?
7. Time- answers the questions: when. A
situation in time.
Examples: at 8 pm, today,
tomorrow
Time is an accident that measure the
duration of mobile beings. Ex. Yesterday;
at 8:30 am. It answer questions, when?
8. Where (place)- position in space.
Examples: here, at home
in the office Manila

Place is an accident that determines the

location. Ex, in Calbayog; in the air. It
answer the question, where?
9. Posture- determination of the
substance as to the external
appearance or outfit.
Examples: lying sitting standing

Posture - is an accident which tells the

position of part of the body. Ex. Standing;
to sit down.
10. Habit- determination of the
substance as to the external
appearance or outfit.
Examples: in red gown covered with
lace

Habit is an accident signifying the

coverings of the things that are placed
around the body. Ex. Clothed; armed. It
answers the question how surrounded,
equipped or conditions?
 Synoptic Schema of
Predicaments:

John is:
1. A man Substance
2. six ft. tall Quantity
3. Healthy Quality
4. Brother of Peter Relation
5. Pulling a net Action
6.Wounded Passion

7.(was here) Yesterday When

8.In the seashore Where

9.Leaning forward Posture

10.Wearing short pants Habit

end