Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Outline
Introduction
Radar Transmitter
Radar Waveform Generator and
Receiver
Radar Transmitter/Receiver
Architecture
Radar Antennas
Radar Displays
Summary
3
Console /
Tracking & Display
Detection Parameter
Estimation Recording
4
Simplified Radar Transmitter/Receiver
System Block Diagram
Antenna
Low Noise
Amplifier Data
Filter receiver A/D
Outline
Introduction
Radar Transmitter Overview
TRANSMITTER ATTRIBUTES
Transmitter Attributes
Attributes of ideal transmitter
Generate stable, noise-free signal (useful for clutter
rejection)
Generate required waveforms to identify target
Generate enough energy to detect target
Provide required bandwidth for transmitted/received
signal
High efficiency and reliability
Easily maintained
Low cost of acquisition and operation
Difficult in getting all of this at once!
Power Amplification 8
Process
Driver
Amplifier(s)
Low Power Signal
(from WFG)
PA 1 PA 2 HPA 3
Amplifiers
Vacuum tube amplifiers and solid state
amplifiers Vacuum tube Solid state amplifier
amplifier
Output power High Low
(10 kW to 1MW ) (10s to 100s W)
Cost per unit High Low
($10s K to $300K) ($ 100s)
Cost per Watt $ 1-3 Varied
Frequency
Tube Amplifiers versus Solid State Amplifiers
12
PAVE PAWS
PAVE PAWS
First all solid state active aperture electronically steered phased array
radar
UHF Band
Timeline
Pulse Width
High Power Pulse
A/D samples
Receiver Window
Receiver
Radar PRI
Duplexer Switch Transmit Transmit
Duplexer Function
Antenna
loss
----Protect receiver during transmit interval
Limiter/
Receiver
Switch
Transmit interval
Antenna
Duplexer HPA
Receiver ON
----Connect Antenna to receiver with low loss
(transmitter must be turned off in this interval)
----Limiter/switch is used for additional protection
Limiter/ against strong interference
Receiver
Switch
Receive interval
22
23
WHY ELECTRONIC ?
Switching the antenna between the transmit and
receive modes presents one problem; ensuring that
maximum use is made of the available energy is
another. The simplest solution is to use a switch to
transfer the antenna connection from the receiver to
the transmitter during the transmitted pulse and back
to the receiver during the echo pulse. No practical
mechanical switches are available that can open and
close in a few microseconds. Therefore, electronic
switches must be used
24
CIRCULATORS
FERRITE CIRCULATOR
The simplest solution would be here to use a
ferrite circulator. However, it is complicated to make
circulators for top performances up to many 100 kW in
the practice. In addition, circulators have a decoupling
of hardly more as 30 to 40 dB and cannot protect the
highly sensitive receiver from the high transmit powers
sufficiently. On the other hand a circulator can provide
the receiver with an echo signal during the transmission
time
26
LIMITATIONS
It has not the limitations of a so
called blind range like other
duplexer systems. Circulators as
duplexer are predetermined for
radar sets with a very low
transmitter's peak power, like the
DPR886.
27
USE OF TR ATR
Therefore TR- and ATR-tubes are used. Unfortunately,
duplexers need a reaction time situated in the
nanosecond area.
TX
TR
AT
R
Rx
Simplified Functional 29
Descriptions
Waveform Generator
Carrier Signal
Receiver
Concepts
Frequency upconversion Frequency Downconversion
Baseband to L Band L Band to Baseband
Reason: Reason:
Waveform generation less expensive at Dynamic range of A/D converter higher at lower
lower frequency frequency
Simplified System Block Diagram
31
Local Oscillator
Dish Radars
KWAJALEIN
Waveform
Duplexer Transmitter
Generator
001011110100
Receiver A/D
Conventional radar transmitter/receiver design employed
Radar Antenna Architecture 33
Comparison
Dish Radar Passive Array Radar Active Array Radar
T R T/R
T T R Modules
PRO R
Very low cost Beam agility
Beam agility
Frequency diversity Effective radar resource
Effective radar resource
management management
CON
Low loss
Dedicated Higher cost
High Cost
Requires custom
function More Complex Cooling
transmitter and high-
Slow scan rate
power
Requires Custom phase shifters
transmitter High loss
High loss
34
#1 . .
Duplexer
. T/R
Receiver
T/R
. .
Active T/R Module
Subarray .
. .
#2 Waveform
. T/R
. Generator
.
. 001011110100
A/D
T/R
. .
.
. .
. T/R
A/D
Subarray .
Analog T/R
#2 .
.
A/D Multi channel
. Digital
. .
.
.
Beamformer
. .
.
.
.
Analog T/R
.
.
A/D
Each active analog T/R module is followed by an A/D for immediate digitization
----- Multiple received beams are formed digitally by the digital beamformer.
Digital Array Example 37
Digital On Receive
RSTER
(14 Digital Receivers)
Digital Array Radar Architecture II 38
Digital
on Transmit & Receive
Waveform
control
1 Analog T/R Digital T/R
Summary
Radar transmit function is accomplished in two
stages:
-----Waveform generator creates low power waveform
signal and up converts it to RF.
-----Transmitter amplifies waveform signal
Radar
Antennas
41
Fundamental parameters:
Coverage
maximum range (R) R4 P A
Resolution
ability to recognize closely spaced targets
Sizes
From proximity fuses used in artillery shells to phased-array radars
housed in multistory buildings for detecting and tracking objects in space.
Mechanically
Electronically
or both,
Electronic Scanning
Allows the beams to be scanned more rapidly by avoiding the
inertia associated with moving mechanical components.
Radar functions
At fixed sites The larger radar antennas are often protected by a radome,
especially in arctic regions that experience heavy winds, ice, and snow.
Mobile systems Prepared to move rapidly from place to place and usually do
not allow time for antenna disassembly.
Marine radar systems Smaller antenna and larger transmitter than would be
used in a comparable land-based application are
recommended.
46
The basic role
Transducer between the free-space propagation and the guided-
wave propagation of electromagnetic waves.
During transmission
Concentrate the radiated energy into a shaped directive beam which
illuminates the targets in a desired direction.
During reception
Collect the energy contained in the reflected target echo signals and
delivers it to the receiver.
Antenna Impedance:
Mismatch, SWR, Return Loss
Effective aperture
2G
A eff
4
Antenna Radiation 50
Patterns
Common parameters
main lobe (boresight)
half-power beamwidth (HPBW)
front-back ratio (F/B)
pattern nulls
Half power
point Half power beam
width (HPBW)
Firs null beam
Side lobes
width (FNBW)
(minor lobes)
0.5
1.0
52
53
54
Sidelobe Levels
In the transmit mode: Wasted radiated power
(3) Median level half of the angular space has sidelobe levels
above it and the other half has them below that level.
(not often used)
56
(HPBW) 57
Example
Find the (HPBW) of an antenna having
E() = cos2 for 0o < < 90o
Solution HPBW
=660
E() at half power
0.707 = cos2 E() =
cos2
= 33o
BW = 66o
58
Polarization
Defined relative to the E-field of antenna.
Horizontally Polarized (If the E-field is horizontal)
Vertically Polarized (If the E-field is vertical)
Relative Power
Cross-Polarization
The undesired orthogonal
polarization (CROSSPOL). X-polarized patttern
Azimuth Angle
Impedance
The complex antenna impedance is
ZA
ZA = RA + j XA
RA - Antenna resistance [(dissipation ) + radiation]
ZA = 50
1.0:1 0.0 dB
REFLECTOR
ANTENNAS
64
Some Types of Reflector Antennas
Ga (dBi) = 10 log10 [ 4 Aa / 2 ]
and = 70 / D
Ga = Antenna Directive Gain F
= Aperture Efficiency (50-55%)
Aa = Antenna Aperture Area
= Wavelength
= 3 dB HPBW
66
z = (x2 + y2)/4f
In spherical coordinates
= f sec2 /2
F
68
Parabolic
reflector Plane wave
A spherical wave front
emerging from F and
incident on the reflector
is transformed after Vertex
Focus Beam axis
reflection into a plane F
wave traveling in the
positive z direction
Offset results
unsymmetrical illumination.
70
The line source feed may assume many different forms ranging
from a parallel-plate lens to a slotted waveguide to a phased
array using standard designs.
The parabolic cylinder has application even where both patterns
are fixed in shape.
72
Elevation beam shaping incorporates
a steep skirt at the horizon
Clearance
Each additional beam can have nearly full gain, and adjacent
beams can be compared with each other to interpolate angle.
A parabola reflects a spherical wave into a plane wave only when the source 76 is
at the focus. With the source off the focus, a phase distortion results that
increases with the angular displacement in beam widths and decreases with an
increase in the focal length. The following figures show the effect of this
distortion on the pattern of a typical dish as a feed is moved off axis. A flat dish
with a long focal length minimizes the distortions. Progressively illuminating a
smaller fraction of the reflector as the feed is displaced accomplishes the same
purpose.
3 GHz
2.5 in square
94 f= 32
77
Patterns for off-axis feeds.
78
AN/TPS-43 multiple-beam antenna
79
Monopulse Feeds
Monopulse is the most common form of multiple beam antenna,
normally used in tracking systems in which a movable antenna
keeps the target near the null and measures the mechanical
angle, as opposed to a surveillance system having overlapping
beams with angles measured from RF difference data.
Two basic monopulse systems
Pattern
sp
Phase Amplitude
comparison comparison
80
Feed
blockage elimination
84
FEEDS
Reflector
Radome:
Reducing wind loading & Protection against Ice, Snow and
Dirt
91
Typical Antenna Performance
Standard Parabolic
Frequency Diameter Gain HPBW F/B ratio
Without shroud
2 GHZ 1.5 m 27 dB 70 20 34 dB
with shroud
2 GHZ 3.0 m 34 dB 4 40
0
42/60 dB
4 GHZ 1.0 m 33 dB 30 40 40 dB
4 GHZ 3.0 m 39 dB 10 50 50/70 dB
6 GHZ 1.5 m 37 dB 20 20 45 dB
6 GHZ 3.0 m 43 dB 10 15 52/70 dB
11 GHZ 1.5 m 42 dB 10 15 50 dB
11 GHZ 3.0 m 48 dB 00 50 58/74 dB
13 GHZ 1.5 m 43 dB 10 05 52 dB
13 GHZ 3.0 m 49 dB 00 30 60/74 dB
Cross polar of all types is of the order of 30 dB
92
Typical Parabolic
Antenna Gain in dBi
Antenna Diameter
2
f2468GGHHzz(0123.916.m56t)(134.572f.mt61)(12346.95818f.mt6)(2348.1734f.m66t)(314.0935.mf51t)(314.25177.mf6t)(414.35697.mf1t)
Frequency
94
Reflector Efficiency
Well-designed antennas
have efficiency ratings of
45 - 65%
Efficiency Factor Affected By :
Feed Illumination
Aperture Blockage
Reflector Surface Tolerance
Efficiency can never be 100%
95
Unwanted Signals
Beamwidth 3dB
Diameter
0 .3 m 0 .6 m 1 .2 m 1 .8 m 2 .4 m 3 m 3 .7 m 4 .5 m
2 G Hz 35 1 7 .5 8 .7 5 5 .8 3 4 .3 8 3 .5 2 .8 4 2 .3 3
Frequency
6 G Hz 1 1 .6 7 5 .8 3 2 .9 2 1 .9 4 1 .4 6 1 .1 7 0 .9 5 0 .7 8
8 G Hz 8 .7 5 4 .3 8 2 .1 9 1 .4 6 1 0 .8 8 0 .7 1 0 .5 8
11 G Hz 6 .3 6 3 .1 8 1 .5 9 1 0 .8 0 .6 4 0 .5 2 0 .4 2
14 G Hz 5 2 .5 1 .2 5 0 .8 3 0 .6 3 0 .5 0 .4 1 0 .3 3
18 G Hz 3 .8 9 1 .9 4 0 .9 7 0 .6 5 0 .4 9 0 .3 9 0 .3 2 0 .2 6
23 G Hz 3 1 .5 2 0 .7 6 0 .5 1 0 .3 8 0 .3 0 .2 5 0 .2
38 G Hz 1 .8 4 0 .9 2 0 .4 6 0 .3 1 0 .2 3 0 .1 8 0 .1 5 0 .1 2
Beamwidth in Degrees
98
Complete flexibility is possible; search and track rates may be adjusted to best
meet particular situations, all within the limitations set by the total use of time.
101
The antenna beamwidth may be changed to search some areas more rapidly
with less gain.
RADAR DISPLAYS
103
RADARS
Displays
A-SCOPE 108
Target signal amplitude vs range or velocity.
May have range indicator inserted typically as a marker along one side.
Usually synthetic video.
Pilots eye view and very common in modern fighter aircraft heads up
displays for target being tracked.
QUERIES!!!
THANK YOU
113
References