UNDERGROUND CABLES

1. CORE
2. MOISTURE BARRIER
3. PROTECTION
 Physical Inspection
MDF
Verification of proper terminations & inspection on the cable side of MDF.
cabinet / pillar
Suitability of location
Rigidity of fixation on concrete plinth & tightness of foundation bolts.
Sign writing.
Proper painting & locking arrangement.
Provision of raised platform with plinth level to be one-and-half feet high from road level.
Proper fixing of CT boxes with covers.
Proper lacing of cable wires.
Long & tight jumpering without any crossing.
DP termination in CT boxes.
Termination of pairs with one-and-half to two turns.
Earthling of the cabinet / pillar (The earthling is by cabinet/ pillar and the other end
buried 8 to 10 into he ground in the form of a coil having 8 to 10 turns).
Availability of chart affixed inside the door giving full details of terminations.
Availability of dust filters in the ventilation pockets and ensuring the equipments are free
from dust & cobwebs.
Entry point of cables to be properly sealed.
To ensure protection from rain, the covers to be water-tight.
Free movement of doors.
Introduction of mini-pillar as per field conditions in conjunction with the 5 pair cable & 5
pair DP, if any to be verified for proper labelling, termination chart availability, etc.
 CORE
All the insulated conductors
compactly arranged in
1. Pairs
2. Units
3. super units
Constitute core of the cable
 Moisture Barrier :

The presence of moisture

deteriorate the quality of
insulation of telecom cables.
Moisture barrier protects entry of
moisture into the core of the
cable.
 Protection ::
U/G Cables require protection
mechanical damages.
Water and chemicals or soil
conditions
Induction due to Electrical lines
Diggings by different agencies,
individuals
 classification of UG cables with
regard to design
Place where used - Underground / overhead /
submarine
Insulation material - Paper / polythene cables
The filling compound - Dry core / jelly filled
Mechanical protection- Armoured / unarmoured cables
Place of utilization - Primary / Distribution / Junction .
System for which used - Co-axial / PCM
Type of conductor - Copper / Optical fiber
Gauge of the conductor - 0.40 / 0.50 / 0.63 / 0.90mm
Pressurization of core - Pressurized / unpressurised
 PURPOSE OF INSULATION
UNDERGROUND CABLES
To separate the conductors in a unit.
To prevent short circuit between two
conductors in a pair
To prevent short circuit between
conductor of one pair with the
conductor any other pair in the unit /
core in the cable.
 PURPOSE OF INSULATION
UNDERGROUND CABLES
The insulation is used as SHEATH to
separate the conductors from being
corroded or eroded in soil.
The insulation is being used for marking /
identifying the pair or conductor
The insulating material is used for preventing
earthing of the conductors.
The insulating material is used for preventing
the corrosion of armouring .
 Transmission characteristics

Paper insulation has good di-electric

properties (Air)
Low specific inductive capacity
Physical properties also enable large
proportion of air as dielectric.
The thickness, width and number of wraps
per meter of insulating paper is selected to
achieve the required mutual capacitance
of cables.
 Transmission characteristics
The Polythene insulation is easy to apply and have
desired electrical characteristic such as low dielectric
constant, and high dielectric strength. Mechanically it is
tougher than paper and has abrasion resistant with
ample tensile strength and elongation.
The insulating resistance shall be measured with a DC
voltage of not less than 500V
The insulation resistance values between each
conductor in the cable and all the other conductors
connected together and to the screen and earth shall not
be less than 5000 Mega ohms / km at Room
temperature.
( Cable length in Km x observed insulation in Mega
ohms ).
 Pairing and Overlay ::

Two insulated conductors shall be

twisted together with uniform lay to form
a pair.
The length of the lay of any pair shall be
different from that of adjacent pairs.to
satisfy the capacitance
unbalance requirements and cross-task
requirement.
 Unit Formation

The pairs are then assembled into

units with different length of unit
twists assigned to different units.
These units are then assembled
into a completed cable core.
 CORE & FILLING COMPOUND

To hold the units together

Provide high di-electric strength from core to shield
To protect the conductor insulation from heat
In PIJF cables non-hygroscopic and non-wicking
polyester tape is used as core wrapping.

The filling compound should be suitable water resistant

compound ,
Paper insulated cables :: Dry air only
Polythene insulated cables :: Jelly compound.
 SCREEN ::

An aluminum tape coated with polythene on both

sides of the cable core with a minimum overlap
of 6 mm for all sizes of cables.
The nominal thickness of the aluminum tape
shall be 0.2 mm and that of polythene coating on
each side 0.05 mm.
The aluminum tape shall be sealed at the
overlap and bonded to the inner surface of
polythene sheath
The tape shall be electrically continuous
throughout the length of cable.
 SHEATH ::

A moisture resistant ,
Gas tight sheath to all the paper insulated cable
(other wise relative humidity will increase and
insulation resistance will decrease.)
The sheath protects the cable form damage
during installation and service.
Paper insulated cables:: Lead /Polythene sheath
Polythene insulated cables :: Polythene sheath
 CONDUCTOR & ARMOURING

Conductor is a solid round wire made of

annealed copper of diameter 0.32 mm,
0.40 mm, 0.50mm, 0.63mm and 0.90 mm.
In the Armoured cables bedding and
armour are provided over the sheath to
be followed by jacket. Cables are called
Armoured cables.
If this arrangement is not done then we
call them as un armoured cables.
 BEDDING

Two close helical lapping of polythene or

polypropylene tape is applied over the
sheath to provide sufficient mechanical
protection during armouring. Each tape is
applied with a minimum 5% overlap. The
second tape will cover the overlap of the
first tape evenly.
 ARMOURING
Armouring is two layers of galvanized steel tape
applied helically in the same direction with a
gap in the first tape of 25% +/- 10 % of the
nominal width of the tape,
The second tape evenly covering the gap of the
first tape. The overlap of the second over the
first shall not be les than 15% of the nominal
width of the tape on either side.
 ARMOURING
The standard armouring types are
Aerial tape armour
Jute protection
Burried tape armour
Modified tape armour
Steel armouring and poly jacketing
Corrugated steel armouring and
jacketing.
 Jacket

Most cables serve their lives with a basic sheath

Armouring protect the cable from rust and corrosion
Jacket is the outer most protection It should be free from
pinholes and other defects.
For identification of telecom cables the following
markings shall be embossed, engraved or printed on the
polythene jacket in case of armoured / unarmoured
cables at an interval of one meter and visible to the
naked eye from a distance of about 1 meter.
Telephone handset emblem .Name of the Manufacturer
Year of Manufacture , Capacity of the cable in pairs
Size of the conductor, Length marking
POLYTHENE INSULATED JELLY
FILLED CABLES
Popularly known as PIJF cables
Consist of twisted pairs of polyethylene
insulated copper conductors.
Paper insulated cables ( PCUT, PCQT,
PCQL & PCQC ) underground cables in
the Telecommunications network.
Paper insulated cables are up to 1800
pairs. Due to various factors like
1.Escalation in the cost of Lead
 2. More faults due to paper insulation the
Polythene insulated Jelly filled cables ( Popularly
known as PIJF ) are used now a days in the
telecomm N/W.
3. The PIJF cables are available up to 3600
pairs.
4. The Pressurization of dry core paper insulated
cables is now a avoidable,
5. PIJF cables are filled with Jelly as filling
compound which takes care of prevention of
entry of moisture / water into the core of the
cable.
Sealing of the Ends
The cables will be sealed with
thermo shrinkable end caps of
adequate thickness after
completion of all tests in
factory before dispatching to
various stores and workplaces
directly.
 Number of Pairs

The cables shall be in sizes

5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, 400,
800, 2000, 2400, 2800,
3200 and 3600 pairs.
 Conductors

Each conductor shall be insulated with

polyethylene of insulating grade.

Different gauges of conductors 0.32mm,

0.40mm, 0.50mm, 0.63mm, and 0.90 mm
are used in the cables.

Each conductor shall consist of a solid

annealed copper uniform in quality,
resistance and free from all defects.
 Insulation

Conductor insulation
Thickness = 0.93 to 0.94mm
The insulation should be uniform.
Smooth and free from all defects.
The insulation will have following color for
identifying pairs /conductors under
normal lighting conditions.
 Insulation Colours

Primary colors Secondary colors

1st wire in a pair 2nd wire in a pair/
Binder tape
1. White 1. Blue
2. Red 2. Orange
3. Black 3. Green
4. Yellow 4. Brown
5. Slate
 Binder
Number of twisted pairs form a group &
called unit.
The color scheme of pairs and wires in a
unit is:-
Unit 1 2 3 4 5
number

Color Blue Orange Green Brown Slate /

of Gray
Binder
 CODE FOR CONDUCTOR INSULATION
Pair no Color
1st wire 2nd Wire
1 White Blue
2. White Orange
3. White Green
4 White Brown
5. White Slate/Gray
6. Red Blue
7. Red Orange
8. Red Green
9. Red Brown
10. Red Slate/Gray
 CODE FOR CONDUCTOR INSULATION
Pair no Color
1st wire 2nd Wire
11 Black Blue
12. Black Orange
13. Black Green
14 Black Brown
15. Black Slate/Gray
16 Yellow Blue
17. Yellow Orange
18. Yellow Green
19. Yellow Brown
20. Yellow Slate/Gray
21 Natural Blue
22 Natural Orange
 U/G Cable Colours
(a) 5 pair cable, color code for pairs 1 to 5 .
(b)10 pairs cables and 10 pairs units of 50 pair cables,
color code 1 to 10
(c) 20 pair cables and 20 pairs units of 100 pair cables,
color code 1 to 20 .
(d) The color scheme is only for the identification of
pairs,
The different colors of the binders shall be distinguish
under normal lighting conditions.
 Stranding
A 50 pair cable has 5 Units of 10 pair each.
A 100 pairs cable has 5 Units of 20 pair each..

An over lapping of 0.02 mm miler tape (Colored) on

each unit.
The tapes shall be so colored and have lay not
exceeding 200 mm.
The tape is not necessary on the 5 pairs, 10 pairs
and 20 pairs cables.
5, 10, 20 and 50 pair cables has one spare pair
The color of the spare pair shall be in accordance
with pair No. 21 .
 Stranding
100 pair cable shall be provided. The spare
pairs in the case of 50 pairs and 100 pairs
cables shall be provided within the cable core,
but shall not be within any unit.
The 200pair and 400 pair cables will be formed
by super units of 50 pairs. and the units stranded
in the form of layers
The cable over 400 pairs is formed be the super
units of 100 pairs and the units stranded in the
form of layers.
Identification of 50 pair super units in cables of
200 pair and 400 pair & 100 pair super units in
cables of over 400 pairs
 Armouring
For armoured cable a close helical lapping
of waterproof cotton tape shall be applied
over the inner-sheath.
Armoured cables has two layers of
galvanized steel tape
Each applied helically with a gap of 25% +
10% of the width of the tape, the second
tape covering the gap of the first.
 Polythene Jacket

A tightly fitting jacket of polythene shall be

applied on the armoured cable.
The minimum thickness of the jacket shall
be 1.2 mm.
USES OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF
CABLES

Gauges 0.32 and 0.44 mm for primary cable.

Gauges 0.4 and 0.5 mm for secondary cable.
Gauge 0.5 and 0.63 mm for distribution cable.
Gauges 0.63 and 0.9 mm for distribution cable.
Higher gauges for longer lengths.
Unarmoured PCUT cable to be laid in duct and
to be pressurized.
Armoured JF cable may be laid direct in the
ground and Unarmoured jelly filled in Ducts
JF cable not to be pressurized.
 DISADVANTAGES OF PAPER
INSULATED CABLES WITH
POLYTHENE INSULATED CABLES

Numbering of pairs is in coded form.

Require more skill.
Color markings also fade with due course of time.
Jointing of cables & plumbing require skill, a small pinhole
will cause entry of moisture / water and damage all the
pairs.
Extra care is required for handling like coiling, uncoiling to
avoid damage.& effect the complete cable instantaneously.
Termination in cabinet / pillars / DPs and at MDF is very
expensive and time consuming & increases number of
joints.
 ADVANTAGES OF POLYTHENE
INSULATED JF CABLES.
Counting of pairs is easy.
Jointing is easy and require no additional chamber.
Failure of joints is less.
Entry of moisture / water is prevented by Jelly in the
core.
Cables can be directly terminated on MDF / Cabinet /
Pillar and DPs, thus avoiding additional joints decreasing
the cost and time.
Handling of cable is easy not delicate like paper
insulated cables.
Life of cable is more.
Construction of JF Cable
 CO-AXIAL CABLE

The coaxial cable consists of a inner solid cylindrical

conductor placed along the axis of an outer hollow
cylindrical conductor.
A coaxial cable may consist of two or more cores layed up
with suitable lay with proper insulation along with quads
laid in the interstices between them all enclosed in a lead
sheath.
The cable is recognized
1.small tube 0.174 . 2.. large tube 0.375 ) (Size of the
inner diameter of tube )
The interstice Quads or pairs having diameter of 0.9mm

TWO CORE 375 coaxial cable

Coaxial core
Lead sheath
Quads of 0.9 mm
Polythene Disc
CO-AXIAL CABLE
Coaxial core

Lead sheath

Quads of 0.9
mm
Polythene
Disc
 OPTICAL FIBRE CABLE

OFC is the latest UG cable used

extensively in all the networks
such as long distance trunks,
junction local subscriber loops to
enhance the data transmission.
 Advantages
of OFC over copper cables

Advantages of OFC over copper cables

are
Optical Fibers are non conductive, hence
does not require earthing and surge
suppression
Optical Fibers are immune to
electromagnetic interference
Un authorized tapping is not feasible.
Easily upgradeable to higher bandwidth.
 Advantages
of OFC over copper cables

Low loss ( 5db per km to < 0.25 db per

km on a typical fiber)
Long and unrepeated links , hence
inexpensive
Small weight, and hence cost is less,
easy for installation.
It does not attract lightning,
It does not carry electricity hence not
hazardous
 Applications of the OFC
Is the common carrier nation wide networks
Inter connecting all Trunk automatic exchanges
Inter connecting all the Exchanges.
Under sea cable
Control systems
Customer premises communication networks.
SDH systems
8 MB MUX for 120 channels
34 MB for 480 channels
140 MB for 1920 channels
 PAIR GAIN SYSTEMS

The pair gain systems are introduced in to the

local network
To provide temporary relief to the Technically not
feasible (TNF) areas.
The PGS is a switching system which provides
more subscriber lines using a single cable pair.
The numerical value of pairs gained is therefore
defined as
Pair gained = No of customers connected No of
network pairs connected .
 The PGS are
Concentrator
Grade of service requirement will limit the
degree of concentration practically possible.
Multiplexer
Uses FDM or TDM technique to assign a
dedicated frequency or time slot resulting in
non-concentration. Better pair gain is
possible.
Concentrating Multiplexer
It is a combination of multiplexer with
concentrator.
 Concentrating Multiplexer
It is a combination of multiplexer with
concentrator.
The different types of PGS are given in
the table.
 Benefits of PGS units

Primary Benefits : Flexibility to provide

rapid service as less effort is needed to
install it than conventional cable .
Secondary Benefits : To improve
customer satisfaction with quick service
and network benefits by restricting the
cable pair re-arrangements to necessary
cases only.
PCUT LS Cables
CONSTRUCTION OF PCM CABLE
PCM cables used for 2mbps digital system.
The cables are available in sizes 10+2, 20+4,
48+6, 96+8
The nominal conductor diameter of 0.63 mm.
5 pair unit for 10+2 Pair cable,
10 pairs unit for 20+4 cables
12 pairs unit for 48+6 and 96+8 pairs.
The conductor material and insulating material
are same as PIJF cable construction.
Color Code for PCM Cable:
L-2
 Cabinet, Pillar, & DP

Forecast of telephone demand

The first step in local network planning is forecasting of
telephone demand for 5, 10, 15 and 20 years ,forecast
values are for smaller areas (1000 sq.
Number and Location of telephone
exchanges
Based on the forecast figures, the optimum number of
exchanges required are determined. Then ideal location
of each exchange is worked out on the basis of definite
area demarcation for each exchange and exchange and
available sites.
 Cable routing scheme.
After the location of each exchange is finalized
and the area to be served by this exchange
demarcated,
Two stage flexibility scheme is being adopted
The determination of the cable routing as well as
the cable size involves the following main steps:
.Marking of general layout of an exchange area.
.Location and Demarcation of cabinets, Pillars.
DP area.
Determination of economical and feasible cable
route.
Marking of general layout of an exchange area.
 Inner and outer zones
each exchange area has to be divided into inner and
outer zones.
The inner Zone boundary will be 500 meters from the
exchange.
Cable feed to the inner zone is made independent..
Within an inner zone around the exchange(500 mtrs) in
DPs can be directly opened
Provision of flexibility is uneconomical and pillars are not
installed. In this case the cables from DPs is terminated
directly on the MDF
The inner zone limit of 500 meters .Taking into account
the anticipated rate of future growth (Low/High) the inner
zone limit may be reduced or increased to suit the
individual cases.
In larger networks. outside the inner zone, the provisions
of Cabinet & pillars is necessary .
 Layout of exchange
area
The exchange area will be divided into two
zones - the inner zone and the outer zone.
The inner zone will be independent units with no flexibility
In large systems where demand is high inner zone is also fed
from a pillar called O pillar directly connected to exchange.
The outer zone has a number of pillar The pillar areas may
be either independent or may be controlled from the cabinet.
Each pillar area comprises of DP areas with the pillar providing
the flexibility between the DPs.
The cabinet areas are always independent units with no
flexibility.
The cabinet will be located in the area nearest the exchange,
Back - feeding is avoided in the secondary network.
 Service Loop

The subscriber loop consists of connection from DP to

subscriber premises. open wire lines or drop wires or
buried served wires.
Open wire lines are generally metallic iron wires (bare
or Insulated) erected on insulators and terminated on
pot heads at subscriber windows as well as on the
DPs. From the pot head terminations the connections
are made through PVC wires.
The drop wire consists of insulated cadmium copper
or copper coated steel wire insulated by PVC coating,
these wires are directly terminated in the DP as well as
to the subscriber window.
we are using open wire lines or drop wires only. The
buried service wires are not being used.
 Distribution Points

a. The larger the number of distribution points, the smaller will be

the length of the aerial lines from the distribution point.
b. Smaller the number of DPs, the lower is the total cost of the
cable terminals and all the spare distribution cable pairs terminated
there in.
So the number of DPs should be more with small capacity.
There are four sizes of DPs which are provided depending upon the
requirements :-
2o Pair DPs : These DPs are generally used in case of overhead lines
feeding long areas and low populated areas.
10 Pair DPs :- These DPs are generally suitable for drop wire type
subs loops where the telephone density is high.
5Pair DPs:- Such DPs are normally provided where number of
telephones in a building or contiguous building is small.
2 Pair Dps :- These are normally provided in subscribers premises
Length of subscribers loop is directly proportional to the size of DP and
accordingly fault liability,
it is preferable to provide smaller size of Dps. 10 Pair and 20 DPs .
 Pillar area
The points where a number of distribution cables meet
are generally suitable for locating the pillars.
In the cases of new developing areas the requirement
arising due to shifting of the telephones to these areas
may also be considered along with new connections
Each pillar area is distinct which comprises of one or
more DPs located within its area .
Each pillar must have a separate distribution network
originating from the pillar and there should be no need
of teeing in any of the section.
Capacity of pillar may vary from 400 to 2000 pairs.
They are available in the sizes of 400, 800, 1000, 1600
and 2000 pairs.
The terminations on distribution side are more than the
terminations on
 Location of Pillar
The pillar should be located taking into account the following
considerations :-
One pillar has 5 to 6 DPs in a block,
separate pillar for the block may not be justified .
Although the telephone load in a block may not justify a pillar, it
is necessary to provide a pillar irrespective of telephone load in
the blocks where cabinets are installed. This will avoid back
feeding of distribution cables from other pillar areas to meet the
demand of the particular block
Pillar areas should be so demarcated that no major road
crossings are encountered while laying distribution cables to
feed the DPs of the area.
Primary and Secondary cables being ducted are safer as
compared to the distribution cables
Therefore, the distribution cables length from pillar to the last
DP should be minimum possible be keeping the pillar nearest to
the anticipated load centre of the area to achieve better
reliability, minimum fault liability and economy in material and
labor.
 Cabinet Area

The provision of flexibility between pillars by means of

cross-connection
The cable pairs from the exchange and pillar to be
terminated.
points where a number of secondary cables
it serves about 3 to 6 pillars
The total terminating capacity of the cabinet may vary
from 1000 pairs to 2000 pairs.
Available in the size of 1000 pairs, 1600 and 2000 pairs.
The terminating capacity for secondary cables is more
than the primary cables.
The Pillar and Cabinet are similar in physical and
structural.
 Location of Cabinets
A cabinet should serve 3 to 6 pillars. In no case, the
number of pillars should be less than 3.
The best point for location of cabinets is on the primary
cable route after it enters the cabinet area.
It should not be at the junction of two main roads.
There should be sufficient space near the cabinets to
accommodate number of joints which may be made in
the near future.
Manhole for all joints located at the cabinet.
Space to install the (Pressure Test Valve in case of
Pressurized Paper insulated cables).
The cabinet should not be target for the vehicular traffic.
The secondary cable length is always greater then the
distribution cable length .
 CABLE PLANNING
Purpose
The main idea behind proper economic cable
planning is the availability at optimum cost of the
cable pair ,as and when required for the purpose of
maintenance and new connections.
The cable planning will effectively reduce capital
cost without hindrance for maintenance and new
connections.
The planning work can therefore be considered in its
two broad aspects viz.
(a) Anticipation of telephone demands
(b) Determination of an economical and convenient
manner in which cable provision can be made to
meet these demands.
 Grading of tenancies

The tenancies are classified in to two categories

(1) Residential - R (2) Business - B
The tenancies are further sub-divided into six grades
1. 1, B1 or R1- Most tenancies can be expected to
have one telephone immediately or in the near future .
2. B2 or R2- 70% of the tenancies are likely to have
telephone by the end of the forecasting period.
3. B3 or R3- 40% or 70% are likely to have telephone by
the end of the forecasting period.
4. B4 or R4- 20% or 40% -do-
5. B5 or R5- Less than 20% -do-
6. B6 or R6- Tenancies which are not likely to have
telephone at all by the end of the forecasting period.
FACTORS AFFECTING GRADING
OF TENANCIES
Income position or the general affluence of the
occupant.
Business tenancies such as factories, large
commercial organization and Government offices
will demand for of PBXs and junction lines rather
than DELs.
Residential tenancies those occupied by self
employed professionals have much higher
telephone potential than salaried employees.
For the purpose of grading. the surveying officer
need not consider whether a telephone already
exists or not
 Classification Values

For determining the CV value in R1 or B1 or

B1 or B1 grade, the number of applicants in
the waiting list is also taken into consideration
in addition to the number of telephones.

Example:- if there are 1000 R1 tenancies in

the area, 500 have telephones and 150 are in
the waiting list,
Then present CV (500+150) /1000= .65.
 NUMBER OF EXCHANGES IN
LARGE AREA.
Average population of the medium sized cities in India is
5 lakhs served by single exchange system.
In most cases where more than one exchange might be
economical, the fact can usually be determined by an
inspection of the detailed map of the exchange area
indicating the location and number of existing and future
subscribers.
The subscriber density is concentrated into well defined
areas. Separated from each other by a substantial
distance, the need for more than one exchange is
immediately noticed.
However, if the area is very large and subscriber density
is uniform throughout, it would be necessary to make
calculations about optimum number of exchanges.
 FACTORS GOVERNING OPTIMUM
NUMBER OF EXCHANGES
(a) LINE COSTS
(b) EXCHANGE COST
(c) OPERATING COST
(d) NUMBER OF EXCHANGES
The total cost of the system will be minimum when,

The number of exchanges = Total line cost

Total exchange cost
TOTAL EXCHANGE COST WILL BE WORKED OUT ON
THE ASSUMPTION THAT THE WHOLE AREA WILL BE
SERVED BE A SINGLE EXCHANGE.
 Economic planning period

1.When a cable is laid, it is necessary to

provide for some spare capacity to meet
the future requirements. The number of
years growth for which economical
provision is made in advance is
called the economic planning period.
2.That primary, secondary and distribution
underground cables should be planned and
laid on the basis of economic planning
period of 8, 10 and 20 years
Utilization of underground cable

Due to improper planning, in our country

that a huge number of laid-cable pairs
are left unutilized. So it has been decided
that the planning and laying of the cable
should have accuracy of maintaining the
following utilization standard :-
Primary - 90 percent
Secondary - 80 to 85 percent
Distribution - 75 percent
 Type of Cable Network

There are two types of networks :-

(1) Rigid Network
(2) Flexible Network
 Rigid Network
In all exchanges upto lines capacity this type of network is
normally adopted where a pair from the DP is connected to the
MDF by means of rigid connections through a number of joints.
Advantages:
(1) No Expenditure on intermediate termination points
such as (Cabinet and Pillar)
(2) Fault liability is less
(3) Records are simple
Disadvantages
Expenditure involved if re-arrangement is required to be done by
operating the joint.
Uneconomical as the cable used is 1.5 times of the actual .
(3)Requires more accuracy in forecast and planning.
This is method of providing partial flexibility. In smaller size
cables, a portion of the main cable pairs are teed so as to appear
at two or more DPs with the remaining being connected to
individual DPs.
 ALLOCATION OF EXCHANGE PAIRS :-
Each. 1-10 -DP 1
Each. 11-20 -DP 2
Each. 21-30 -Teed between DP 1 & DP
2
Disadvantages
More attenuation due to teed joint
Increased fault liability
Low Insulation and cross-talk possibility
 Disadvantages

1. Rearrangement between main cables and

distribution points.
2. Opening of joints required frequently and
there is a limit to the amount of handling a joint
can stand.
Provision of cable upto ultimate capacity 500 lines
1. Route having rate of growth upto 5 pairs/year
-20 years
2. Route having rate of growth more than 5
pairs/year -10 years
 Flexible network

1.Primary cable :-
2. Secondary cable :-
3.Distribution cable :- DPs are
connected to the pillar by various
gauges of conductor i.e 0.5 mm,
0.63mm depending upon the distance
of the DPs from the pillar.
Over provision factors for Primary,
Secondary and Distribution cables

Section of Network Over provision

network Planning periods factor

Primary 5 years 1.1

secondary 10 years 1.2
distribution 20 years 1.3
 Transmission limits prescribed at present are as follows
Transmission limits

Dia. in mm lbs /mile (Unloaded cables Loaded cables)

premises Unit In term of Circuit
B2)
0.4 4 1140 Loading not
1900 for E-10B Recommended
0.5 6.5 1000 Loading not
recommended

0.63 10 830 -----------

1650

0.9 20 870 ----------

1650
 Loading
It will be seen from above that for cable of
gauge 10, 20, Lbs
Transmission limit are lower than the
signaling limit
Line limit is therefore set be the transmission
limits.
Loading improves the transmission
Characteristics performance of 10 and 20 lb.
cable can be improved by means of loading.
 L-3

FAULTS LOCALISATION
 CABLE FAULTS
DETECTION & LOCALISATION

Approx 70% of the external faults are UG cable

faults
Efficiency of the maintenance of external plants
depends on the proper planning, execution, and
maintenance of cable network i.e. the primary,
secondary and distribution cables, cabinets,
pillars, DPs etc.
Moreover one cable fault normally effects a large
number of circuits i.e upto 3600 circuits.
 TYPES OF CABLE FAULTS

Earth fault
Low insulation fault
Disconnection Fault
Short Circuit Fault
Foreign potential
 Causes of FAULTS
1. Corrosion :- Chemical and electro chemical action, which
damages the outer sheath and the conductor of the cable.
2 Inter-crystalline fracture :- Sheath is effected due to mechanical
stresses longitudinal, transverse, tensional oscillation variation of
temperature / repeated overheating of the sheath.
3. Faulty materials used during manufacturing of the Cable
4 Bad maintance and careless work-man ship, specially during
laying & jointing of cable.
5 Natural causes and accidents :- Due to termites, rodents borers
etc., & due to earth quack, floods, penetration by tree roots, contact
with power lines etc.
6, Digging by other public utility authorities and individual public.
7. Causes unknown and untraceable.
 Majority of the above reasons can be avoided
during the time of laying and jointing of the
cable.
example all the dry core cables are supplied in a
pressurized condition with a Schrader valve
fitted at a free end of the cable drum.
Before laying the cable pressure inside the cable
should invariably be checked.
No pressure in the cable signifies the sheath
fault in the cable and hence the whole cable
drum should be sent back to the manufacturer.
Proper laying can prevent alli the above reasons
Joint is the weakest portion in the length of the
cables.
 Proper and utmost care should be taken
!. jointing by using standard quality & quantity of
jointing material and employing efficient workmen.
Cable faults cannot be totally avoided
Any of the above faults or a number of faults
together may crop up due to any reason.

The effect of the fault is either disconnection of

communication or impairment or transmitted
signals.
DETECTION AND LOCALISATION OF
CABLE FAULT

THE BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR

DETECTION AND LOCALIASATION OF
CABLE FAULTS ARE :-

1. Thorough idea about the cable network.

2. Availability of up-dated cable records viz., cable
diagram, cable plans, DP cards and cable route
and joints indicators etc.
3. Availability of proper type of testing instruments
in god working condition and skilled staff.
MEDIA THROUGH WHICH CABLE
FAULTS ARE DETECTED
1. Complaints from the subscriber,
2. Testing of the circuits from test desk or
OMC.
3. Routine testing from test-desk or OMC.
4. Non availability of pair at the time NTC.
5. Alarm from the control panel of the
pressurization system.
6. Location of a fault in working cable
caused due to the digging.
 Conditions :-
1. Cable used is jelly filled
2. Cable diagram is very much up-to-date
Above diagram is a part of the cable diagram of a pillar.
For example the telephones of DP nos. 1 and 2 are
reported to be faulty. Now consulting the pillar diagram it
can immediately be referred that joint - 2 is faulty.
No necessity of testing is required.
By consulting the cable plan &, route and joint indicator
the faulty joint - 2 can be physically localized.
For paper insulation cable, this type of localization is not
possible because fault may arise any where in the cable
between joint -1 & joint - 2 due the entry of moisture
through sheath puncture.
 INSTRUMENTS / METERS
MULTIMETER / A.V.O. METER
BRIDGE MEGGAR
PULSE ECHO TESTER / ECHO METER
APLAB CABLE FAULT LOCATOR- 3039
CABLE TESTER MODEL- 5199
 Localization of Fault by
instruments

Following instruments are used for the

localization of cable fault.
Multimeter or A.V.O. meter: These
instruments are used for finding out-
(a) Resistance of wire or of a pair (loop)
(b) continuity of a wire between two points
(c) Numbering of the pairs, if there is
reversal at any intermediate point.
 BRIDGE MEGGAR
BRIDGE MEGGAR : This instrument is extensively used
in all the cable maintenance sections.
This works on Whetstone Bridge principle and is used
for the following purposes ::
(a) Accurate measurement of loop and wire resistances
(b) Measurement of cross insulation between the wires
of the same pair or between the pairs of a cable.
(c) Earth insulation between a wire or pair and earth.
(d) Localization off dead-earth fault (when resistance
between the faulty wire and earth is very low).
(e) Very rough localization of Disc. fault (principle of
condenser discharge).
 EARTH FAULT LOCALISATION
BY BRIDGE MEAGER
THE FOLLOWING CONDITIONS MUST BE SATISFIED :-
1.The fault must be dead earth
2.One good wire must be available between
the testing station and the point from
where test is given at the looping end. and
gauge of the good wire is not required to
be the same as that the faulty wire. The
good wire may have a separate route than
the faulty wire.
3.No presence of foreign battery.
 Types of faults to be localized
It is useful for localizing four types of faults
Condition of the fault (whether dead earth or
not)
Earth insulation of the good wire
Resistance of the faulty wire and good wire
looped at the distant end
Valley loop test. used for localizing earth or
contact faults.( constant arm radio Bridge )
Murray test - used for localizing earth or
contact faults on short lines. (variable arm
radio bridge)
 PULSE ECHO TESTER / ECHO METER

This is the modern/ reliable method for localizing of any

cable fault.
Instrument provides an accurate distance measurement.
Instrument works on the pulse reflection principle.
The pulses which are created by a generator and which
are suitable for the location of cable fault / error are
transmitted through cable,
The part of the pulse power is reflected at the fault
according to magnitude of power. This is observed on the
CRT screen. It makes use of characteristic impedance of
the conductor pair whose deviation from the nominal
characteristic impedance determines the intensity of
reflection or the reflection co-efficient
 PULSE ECHO TESTER / ECHO METER

The pulse echo test method

provides quantitative as well as
qualitative information on any
transmission cable - impedance
loss, rise time, electrical length
and discontinuities in a single
measurement.
 PULSE ECHO TESTER / ECHO METER
Pre-requisite :- During testing with this instrument , the
gauge of the conductor and type of insulation of the
cable under test must be known.
. The type of the faults those can be localized
(a) Open circuit/disc (b) Short circuits
(b) High resistance point (d) Partial contacts
(e) Low insulation fault (f) Split pairs
(g) Water logged section in PE insulated air core cable
(h) Dent in outer conductor of coaxial cables etc.
APLAB cable fault locator- 3039

This instrument can be very efficiently used for checking

up the length of the cable in the drum before laying .
The instrument is known as

APLAB cable fault locator- 3039 manufactured in

India
.
During the time of jointing the cable, or terminating the
cable at terminal points like MDF, Cabinet, pillar, DP etc.
a good number of wires become break ,looped due to
bad workmanship. The disconnection & loop faults may
arise due to various other reasons.
APLAB cable fault locator- 3039
 L-4
Pole Less External Plant
Pole less external plant
External plant network comprises of
underground cables, cabinet/pillars.
Distribution points, drop wire laid on poles,
Lines Jack unit, telephone instruments etc.
The pole less external plant means that
the outdoor plant network is free from the
pole alignments and its allied components.
 Reduction in fault rate has always been a serious concern
In first phase during 80s and early 90s, Electro-mechanical
exchanges were replaced by electronics in the internal
plant. The fault rate improved to some extent
The drop wire constitutes the last link in the communication
network from the DP to subscriber premises. This is a
single pair PVC insulated wire,
Earlier cadmium copper drop wire of diameter 0.9 mm was
in use But after, that self supporting drop wire (SSDW) of
diameter 0.5mm was developed with a view to economise
on copper.
But complaints reg this drop wire from number of Circles.
Most of the complaints related to the poor quality of
insulation & breaking of conductor &.termination problem of
drop wires at DPs.
A High Committee was formed in 1997 to review the
reasons for high fault rate in external plant. The problems
of drop wire DPs and telephone instruments were reviewed
and following recommendations were implemented:-
 Drop wire

Two types of drop wire is used

Cadmium copper drop wire of diameter 0.9 mm,
Self supporting drop wire (SSDW) of diameter 0.5 mm with Fiber
Glass Roving as strength member,
Quality checks during supply.
Increase the thickness of the insulation from 0.4 mm to 0.5 mm.
Use of better grade of insulation.
Inclusion of UV tests to ensure that the PVC does not degrade due
to the weathering conditions.
Additional marking on drop wire to ensure quality control and tracing
in the field.
Use of drop wire accessories
Use of 5 pair cable for reducing the overhead network.
 DISTRIBUTION POINT

Use of proper tools by the field units

Different colour of DPs to identify the 0.5
mm drop wire termination and 0.9 mm
drop wire termination DPs.
Use of 5 pair internal DP.
 Telephone instruments
Improving the PCB quality by Avoiding the
materials that absorb moisture
Giving more gaps between the tracks (to avoid
short circuits.
Adequate insulation between pins of connectors
and cables.
Reliable Component specially for ringing circuits.
With these improvements in the Drop wire, DP
and telephone instruments in the external plant
resulting in reduction of fault rate.
 Use 5 pair PIJF underground cable along with 5
pair DP in place of drop wire from DP to
subscriber premises. In exchanges where fault
rate is high.
Practically It was found that the fault rate of such
exchanges has been much less than the
corresponding figure of the same before
induction of the scheme..
With the induction of private operators in the
Telecom Sector, it became necessary to provide
better quality services to the customers.
In the internal plant almost all the electronic
exchanges were replaced by digital technology
exchanges & has improved the quality in the
internal plant and also reduced the internal faults
to almost zero..
It was decided in April 2001 to use 5 pair PIJF
cable in more exchanges instead of drop wire.
 High Power Committee
A High Power Committee was constituted in June 2000.
HPC observed that the main reasons for poor quality of
services are as under:-
1. Bad construction practices due to laxity in supervision.
Maximum development work are carried out into the last
three or four months
2.- Poor inventory management i.e. availability of right
material at right time for execution of work.
3. Inferior quality of material.
4. Lack of co-ordination at grass route level.
5. No preventive measures due to lack of proper records.
6. Use of paper core underground cable.
7. Lack of training to field staff for pole less network.
 Recommendations of High
Power Committee
Replacement of all expired paper core cable in a period
of three years.
Planning of more Rural Subscriber Units (RSUs) in the
network.
Initial loading of 5 pair DPs shall be permitted even for
two connections and four connections in 10 pair DPs.
Time bound programme for updating all cable records
and digitalization.
Old /recovered drop wire not to be used for shift ing.
Periodical training to field staff from time to time.
 Telecom Regulatory Authority of
India
TRAI in July 2000 defining quality of
service parameters for basic
telephone services and has fixed
benchmarks for the same.
For 100 DELs/month faults should be
less than 7 by June 2003
For 100 DELs/month faults should be
less than 3 by June 2004
 The installation should be carried out
strictly in accordance with Engineering
instructions.
Condition in tender documents that
contractor will supply the cable diagram
in soft copy also.
Material procured/ allotted for up
gradation and maintenance should be
used for that purpose only.
Provision of pipe for telephone cables in
the building by-laws.
All development works should be
offered for A/T on monthly basis.
 0.5 mm drop wire only be used in the N/W.
New type of drop wire accessories should be
used.
The life of the telephone instruments reduced
from 10 years to 5 years.
Rehabilitation / up gradation of external plant.
The use of 5 pair PIJF cable along with 5 pair
DP in the network.
Replacement of all expired paper core cable by
PIJF cable in three years i.e.2000-04.
Replacement life expired telephone instruments
during three years i.e. 2000-03
Therefore the external plant N/W is improved to
achieve the desired parameters.
BSNL Policy & its Implementation

Use of 5 pair cable along with 5 pair internal DP

instead of drop wire universally in all exchanges .
commissioning of New Rural/Subscribers units
(RLU/RSU) with poles less external plant.
use of 5 pair cable to the extent of saving in over
head material for provision of new connections.
Introduction of Mini Pillar cum Joint Box (MPJBX) in
the network.
provision for pipe for telephone cables in building
Allotment of funds for creation of Pole less network.
suitable certificate course on payment basis for cable
splicing, termination & house wiring to create trained
manpower in unorganized sector.
Designing of jointing kit for 5 pair cables.
 MPJ Box

The MPJ Box accommodates

Cable terminal box for terminating primary and
distribution underground cables on modules( IDC)
Cable joints on the ground.( Straight / branch)
The primary and distribution underground cables are
terminated in 1:1 ratio on the CT box
The MPJ box is a combination of a 400 pairs Mini
Pillar and a joint box. The introduction of MPJ box in
external cable network is
To avoid underground joint and
To eliminate jumpering in pillars
 MINI PILLAR

By the use of MPJ Box , 10/20 pairs

cables in large numbers are to be laid
from the MPJ box to the distant DPS.
To avoid this, 200 pairs Mini Pillars are
installed at suitable locations. 50/100 pairs
cables are laid between MPJ Box & Mini
Pillar and 10.20 pairs are laid between
Mini Pillar & DP.
 Joint Box

If there is no need for dropping cables

pairs and only splicing is involved, then JB
can be used.
The introduction of Mini Pillar Joint Box is
very useful particularly for extending
5/10/20 pair distribution cables.
Mini Pillar cum joint box may be used
while planning external network.
 Advantages

No CT boxes are required for terminating distribution

cables, which results in saving of cost.
No TSF kit are required because the joints are kept
inside the MPJ box.
No jumpering in the pillar, resulting in saving of cost.
Provides easy and quick access for testing during major
breakdown since excavation of joint pits is largely
avoided.
Liability of faults during monsoon is very much reduced.
May be more suitable for RLUs/RSUs.
 Disadvantages

1. The cable network by using MPJ Box is a

rigid network, resulting in less flexibility.
2. Forecast at the time of planning should be
done meticulously.
3. This sort of arrangement may not meet the
unexpected sudden demand.
4. Since the joints are easily accessible and
can be tampered /sabotaged during strike.
5. Not suitable in congested areas.
Provision of pipes for telephone
cable

CMD, BSNL took up the case with Chief

Secretaries of different states and union
territories for proper lead in arrangements to be
incorporated in building by-laws. All the heads of
SSAs have been asked to take up the issue with
their respective municipalities or local bodies to
incorporate the leading pipe for telephone cables
in building by-laws, to avoid digging up of
existing flooring pavements inside the premises
of subscribers or multi-storey blocks, which is
normally opposed by owners
 joining kit for 5 pair cables

It was felt by TEC that a joining kit for

exclusive use of 5 pair cable will not result
in considerable saving in the cost of
joining kit.
Further it will increase the inventory of
joining kit. However, TSF-0 has been
designed by TEC for jointing of 5 pair
cable with 10 pair cable. Soon it will be
available in the field.
 Acceptance testing Guidelines

The acceptance testing of external plant is carried out

before the commissioning of the exchange, final service
quality test.
As it became apparent that A/T of external plant could
not be finished simultaneously along with the A/T of
switching equipment .
A/T of external plant continue to be delinking from A/T of
exchange equipment.
Cabinets/pillars and DPs can be offered for A/T
separately.
Rapid Automatic link testing from the exchange may be
done wherever feasible.
 Telephone instruments should be pre-tested by
the concerned circles and a certificate attached
to the instruments which will be verified by T&D
staff during sample check of subs premises.
Exchanges up to 2K lines, the A/T will be done
by the concerned circles.
The A/T records of exchange equipment as well
as external plant will be made available to the
T&D A/T staff for sample check.
The D.E. A/T T&D circle will submit quarterly
progress report in respect of each circle.
 For new external plant

100% physical inspection of all

cabinets/pillars &DPs.
10% sample inspection of all new subs
fittings.
100% check of line parameters (Insulation,
capacitance & foreign potential).
 For area transfer from electro-
mechanical to electronic exchanges

100% physical inspection of all

cabinets/pillars & DPs.
10% sample inspection of all new subs
fittings.
100% check of line parameters
(Insulation, capacitance & foreign
potential). In case of parameters out-of-
limit, these are to be re-tested.
 For lines opened after
commissioning of the exchange

1.Line parametric testing to be carried

out by exchange in-charge and
sample check to be done by T&D A?T
team.
2.All cabinets/pillars& DPs to be offered
to T&D circle
 Acceptance testing procedure

The acceptance testing procedure

adopted in the following three ways:
procurement of records
physical inspection
Electrical parameter / line testing.
 Procurement of records
The area DET conveys the readiness for A/T of
external plant by presenting the EP-0 FORM
along with the following documents:
Approved lay-out diagram of MDF.
L-14 diagram of the underground cable (primary,
secondary & distribution)
Test report of 100% line & electrical parameter
test.
All documents/certificates mentioned in EP-0
All accessories used for the external plant
including that for pole-less DP to be listed.
 For area transfer from one
electronic exchange to another

100% physical inspection of all cabinets/pillars &

DPs.
10% sample inspection of all new subs fittings.
100% check of line parameters (Insulation,
capacitance & foreign potential). In case of
parameters out-of-limit, these are to be re-
tested.
The circle A/T team will decide on sample test
(Where external plant was already upgraded &
A/Ted)
 Physical Inspection
MDF
Verification of proper terminations & inspection on the
cable side of MDF.

cabinet / pillar
Suitability of location
Rigidity of fixation on concrete plinth & tightness of
foundation bolts.
Sign writing.
Proper painting & locking arrangement.
Provision of raised platform with plinth level to be one-
and-half feet high from road level.
Proper fixing of CT boxes with covers.
Proper lacing of cable wires.
 Physical Inspection
Cabinet / pillar
Long & tight jumpering without any crossing.
DP termination in CT boxes.
Termination of pairs with one-and-half to two
turns.
Earthling of the cabinet / pillar (The earthing is
by cabinet/ pillar and the other end buried 8 to
10 into he ground in the form of a coil having 8
to 10 turns).
Availability of chart affixed inside the door giving full
details of terminations.
 Physical Inspection
Cabinet / pillar
Availability of dust filters in the ventilation pockets and
ensuring the equipments are free from dust & cobwebs.
Entry point of cables to be properly sealed.
To ensure protection from rain, the covers to be water-
tight.
Free movement of doors.
Introduction of mini-pillar as per field conditions in
conjunction with the 5 pair cable & 5 pair DP, if any to be
verified for proper labeling, termination chart availability,
etc.
 Pole less DPs

Height of 2.5 Mtr from ground

Fixed on external wall of the building
safety from rain or water entry
Ensuring termination chart availability.
Neat painting, locking & sign writing
0.5mm drop wire to subs termination point
from DP to be properly done avoiding
bends.
 Pole less DPs
To be properly /joining to be allowed.
Proper fixing & tightening ensured.
0.5 mm 5pair PIJF cable leading from ground to
DP is to be through GI pipe and rigid PVC pipe
of 20mm dia..
Drop wire from DP box to be taken through wall
rings & wall angle rings.
Plastic casing up to LJU unit inside the house to
be used.
Ensuring proper approach to the DP for easy
inspection & maintenance.
 Subs fittings

proper termination of drop wire at Subs window/Rosette or

conduit
Fittings of drop wire through wooden batten or PVC pipes
Bending of drop wire at 90 degrees.
Service line and power line are separate.
Touching with power line to be avoided
Proper fixing of rosette / LJU
Joints in drop wire / PVC should be avoided
Extra drop/ PVC wire to be avoided
Telephone accessories/ plan instruments to be checked.
Electrical / line parameter testing

From the exchange terminal, rapid testing of the

parameters showing following correct limits are to be
verified:
A.C potential between A or B wire to Earth ; Up to 6V
D.C potential between A or B wire to earth : Up to 6V
Insulation across A or B wire to Earth : > 1 M ohm
(But for old cables, a low value up to 250 k ohms
allowed)
capacitance across A & B wire : 0.3 ~ 0.5 MF
Power supply current on line : 23 to 60 ma
Loop resistance : 1550 ~ 2400
ohms
 Annexure B
Schedule of equipments to be offered for A/T
1. Name of the Exchange & Type :
2. Capacity of the Exchange :
3. Capacity of the external plant being offered
4. Date of last test conducted in the concerned
exchange & that of external plant
 Details of cabinet being offered for A/T

Sl. No. Cabinet number Size Of Cabinet

& location
 Details of pillar being offered for
A/T

Sl. No. Pillar No & Size of Parented to Details of

location pillar cabinet No. DPs working
Details of DPs being offered for A/T

Sl. DP No & Size of Type of No.of lines

No location DP DPs working from DP
 Details of Subs lines (serially) being
offered for A/T

Sl. Telephone MDF(E) MDF DP Pair Accessories

No. No particulars (New) No No
 certificate
certificate from competent authority regarding proper
guarding of all power crossings.
Certificate for use of standard drop wire along with
standard Drop wire accessories from DP to LJU /
Concealed Wiring.
Certificate from DET that whole external plant is
upgraded and tested as per latest schedule EIs & DOT
instructions on the subject.
Certificate regarding provision of tested telephone
instruments.

Date:- Signature of the

Installer
(Not below the rank of DET)
 L-5
1. Parameters for external plant to be used
for Broad Band
2. Concepts of pole less external plant
Types of transmission impairments

Every network suffers from impairments;

there are three types of transmission
impairments
Attenuation,
Delay Distortion
Noise.
 Attenuation

Attenuation:-

It is the strength of signal with

distance over any transmission
medium.
 Noise
For any data transmission event, the received
signal will consist of
Transmitted signal, modified by the various
distortions imposed by the transmission
system,
Impulse Noise
Thermal noise
Crosstalk
Inter-modulation noise
 Thermal Noise

Results from thermal agitation of electrons in a

conductor.
Evenly distributed over the entire radio
frequency spectrum: white noise.
It is present in all electronic devices and
transmission media and is a function of
temperature. In the FM broadcast band where
there is no station, the hiss in the background
is the thermal noise. Thermal noise cannot be
eliminated.
 Inter-Modulation Noise

It results when signals of different

frequencies share the same transmission
medium.
It produces signals at a frequency that is
the sum or difference of the two original
frequencies or multiples of those
frequencies.
 Impulse noise

It is noncontiguous consisting of irregular

pulses or noise of short duration and of high
amplitude.
It is generated from lightning and flaws in the
communications system.
It is the primary source of error in digital data
communication
 Cross talk
It is the most important of the capacity limiting
noise.
It is caused by electromagnetic radiation of
other phone lines in close proximity or may be
from within the same cable.
The crosstalk will decrease as the bandwidth
increases.
The crosstalk is typically worse between two
pairs in the same binder than in the adjacent
binders.
 Factors Effecting the circuit
quality
1. Return Loss 6. Interruptions

2.Insertion Loss 7. Split Pairs

3.Longitudinal Balance 8. Gauge Changes

4.Crosstalk 9. Bridge Taps

5.Noise 10.Bad Cable Twisting

 Return Loss

Definition:-Return Loss is the ratio of the power

reflected back from the line due to mismatching to the
power transmitted into the line.

This is measured from one end of the line, by

transmitting a test tone at a fixed level and measuring
the reflected signal at the same end.
A high level of return loss indicates errors or cable
faults near to the end of the cable where the test is
carried out.
If the return loss is too high the DSL service may not
operate, and the fault has to be found and rectified.
 Insertion Loss

Definition:- It is the ratio of the power received

at the end of the line to the power
transmitted into the line.
It is measured by generating a tone (or
sweep of tones) at one end and measuring
the signal strength received at the other end,
using a tuned receiver to discriminate
between the signal and noise.
 Crosstalk

Definition :-Whenever a current

flows through a conductor, a
magnetic field is set up around
the conductor inducing the
current flows in other conductor.
Near End Crosstalk (NEXT)
Far End Crosstalk (FEXT)
 NEXT & FEXT

Near End Crosstalk ( NEXT)

It is measured by a test tone transmitted on one
pair and any coupled signal is detected by a
receiver connected to an adjacent pair.
Far End Crosstalk (FEXT)
It is measured at both ends of a cable, by
transmitting a signal into one pair at one end
and measuring the resulting signal power on an
adjacent pair at the other end.
 Environmental Influences

1. Radio &TV transmitters broadcast electromagnetic

fields.
2. Power distribution systems create very strong magnetic
fields,
3. Electrical machinery creates both magnetic fields in the
armatures and electric fields in the commentators.
4. Mechanical vibration of lines can cause noise because
movement of a conductor through a magnetic field
i.e the Earths magnetic field induces current.
5. Electrical switchgear produces high energy transient
fields.
 Noise &
Interruptions
1. Noise is measured by connecting a receiver
tuned to the required frequency (or sweep of
frequencies) to the line at one end. For highest
accuracy the line should be terminated at the
other end but this is not very important.
2. Interruptions are breaks in transmission or
drops in the level of a test tone below a
designated threshold. They can be caused by
bad joints, mechanical vibration and
intermittent line breaks.