Genetics

Structure and functions of DNA

Structures of RNA
Protein synthesis (transcription and translation)

Naina Patel
DNA- what is it?
DNA= deoxyribosenucleic acid

Contained in chromosomes, which are found

in the nucleus of most cells

DNA contains the sugar deoxyribose

A DNA molecule has two strands soiled together in the shape of a double
helix. Each strand is made up of lots of small groups called nucleotides

Involved in protein synthesis, and mitosis

Naina Patel
Nucleotides
A nucleotide contains a pentose (5 carbon) sugar, a
phosphate group (PO42-) and a
nitrogenous base

The nucleotides link together into a long chain

phosphate sugar called
base a
-
polynucleotide
O
-
O P O CH 5
2

O O
C
4
C1 N

C3 C2

Each nucleotide has the same sugar OH OH

and phosphate, but the base can

vary Naina Patel
DNA bases
There are 4 possible bases that are present in
DNA
Adenine always pairs with thymine (A-
ADENINE (A) T), and guanine always pairs with
CYTOSINE (C)
cytosine (G-C)
GUANINE (G)
THYMINE (T) The bases are paired together by
specific base pairing, meaning only one
base can join with a particular partner

Naina Patel
 The sugar and phosphate groups join to form the sugar
phosphate backbone.

The sugars and phosphates are linked by

phosphodiester bonds

Two DNA polynucleotide strands join together

by hydrogen bonding between the bases

The two strands wind up to form a DNA helix

Naina Patel
 Mutations
Changes to the base sequence of DNA
Caused by mutagenic agents, or errors during DNA
replication
Base substitution is where one base gets substituted for
another e.g. GCTAGC becomes ACTAGC
Base deletion is where one base is deleted e.g. GCTAGC
becomes GCAGC
In a DNA strand the order of bases determine the order of
amino acids. If a mutation occurs, the order of amino acids
could be altered. e.g. CCT codes for glycine, whilst CTT codes
for glutamate Naina Patel
RNA
Polymer of nucleotides, with series of bases attached to
a sugar phosphate backbone.
RNA is a nucleic acid like DNA, but with 4 differences:
RNA has the sugar ribose instead of deoxyribose
RNA has the base uracil instead of thymine
RNA is usually single stranded
RNA is usually shorter than DNA

Naina Patel
 mRNA
Messenger RNA
Single polynucleotide strand
Made in nucleus during transcription
Carries the genetic code from DNA (in
the nucleus) to the cytoplasm where its used to make a
protein during translation
It has a short lifetime and is degraded soon after it is used

rRNA
Ribosomal RNA
Largest type of RNA
Made up of polynucleotides strands that are attached to proteins to make
ribosomes
Naina Patel
 tRNA
Transfer RNA
Single polynucleotide strand
Found in the cytoplasm, where it is involved in translation
80 nucleotides long
Folds up by complementary base pairing to form a looped clover leaf
structure. The shape is held together by hydrogen bonds
Always have the base ACC at one end, where the amino acid binds
On the other side they have a sequence of 3 bases called an anticodon
The amino acids are attached to their tRNA molecule by specific
enzymes
It carries the amino acids that are used to make proteins, to ribosomes

Naina Patel
Protein synthesis
Involves two stages:
Transcription and translation
Transcription takes place in the nucleus
Translation takes place at ribosomes in cytoplasm

Naina Patel
 Transcription
mRNA is made using DNA as a template
RNA polymerase attaches to DNA
Hydrogen bonds break between 2 DNA strands, meaning the
DNA strand uncoils
One strand is used as a template to make mRNA
RNA polymerase (an enzyme) lines up free RNA nucleotides
alongside the template strand
Specific base pairing happens, so the mRNA strand is a
complementary copy of the DNA template
(except T is replaced with U)
Naina Patel
 RNA nucleotides are joined together forming an mRNA
molecule
RNA polymerase moves along the DNA, separating the
strands of DNA and mRNA
Hydrogen bonds reform around DNA, and the DNA coils
up again bac into a double helix
When RNA polymerase reaches the stop codon, it stops
making RNA and detaches from the DNA.
mRNA moves out of nucleus via a nuclear pore and
attaches to a ribosome

Naina Patel
 Translation
Ribsome attaches to mRNA, at the start codon (AUG base
sequence)
A tRNA molecule comes with correct anticodon (UAC), and
attaches itself to the mRNA by specific base pairing
A second tRNA molecule can then attach itself in the same
way
The two amino acids on the tRNA molecules are joined
together inside the ribosome by a peptide bond
The first tRNA molecule now moves away leaving its amino
acid behind
Naina Patel
 A third tRNA binds to the next codon on the mRNA
Its amino acid binds to the first two amino acids, and
the second tRNA molecule moves away
Process continues, producing a polypeptide chain of
amino acids, until a stop codon is reached, which
doesnt code for an amino acid.
The polypeptide chain moves away from the ribosome
and translation is complete.

Naina Patel
Questions- test your knowledge!
Outline the structure of DNA, including how it forms a
double helix twist
Name the bases found in DNA?
Describe the shape of tRNA molecule, and explain why
it has this shape
What is the complementary section of mRNA, to the
DNA sequence: AGTCGTAATGCTCAGA
Where does the second stage of protein synthesis take
place?

Naina Patel
References
http://oregonstate.edu/dept/biochem/hhmi/hhmiclasses
/bb450/winter2002/ch04/dribose.htm
http://www.shmoop.com/biomolecules/nucleic-acids.htm
l
http://www.sciencebuddies.org/blog/2013/04/celebrating-
dna-and-the-history-of-the-double-helix.php
https://www.emaze.com/@AOQOWWZQ/Making-a-Protei
n
http://wps.prenhall.com/wps/media/objects/3085/31593
29/blb2509.html
http://sphweb.bumc.bu.edu/otlt/MPH-Modules/PH/PH70
9_DNA-Genetics/PH709_DNA-Genetics25.html
Naina Patel