Orbital Mechanics 101,

Part I
Understand basic orbital
mechanics and how orbits work
Understand the different types
of orbits used for different
purposes
Understand basic principles of
Interplanetary Travel
mechanics
 Newtons Laws:
Gravity
Newtons Law of Universal
Gravitation: The force of gravity
between two bodies is directly
proportional to the product of their
two masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the
distance between them.
F = G M1M2
R2
If we double the distance between
the two masses (R) in the upper
part of the figure to (2R) in the
lower figure, the gravity force (Fg)
is decreased by four (Fg/4).
 Spheres of

Influence
A bodys sphere of influence (SOI)
is the surrounding volume in which
its gravity dominates a spacecraft.
In theory, SOI is infinite.
In practice, as a spacecraft gets
farther away, another bodys
gravity dominates.
The size of a planets SOI depends
on:
The planets mass
How close the planet is to the
Sun (Suns gravity overpowers
that of closer planets)
Escape
Velocity
Because a bodys size and mass

determine its gravitational pull,

escape velocity differs for each object
as explained by our pal Newton

F = G M1M2
R2

.Or just think of a baseball

 Orbital Motion: Baseballs in
Orbit
8 Km
5m

If a baseball player throws a baseball

horizontally from a mountain top:
Gravity pulls the ball toward the ground.
The faster a ball is thrown horizontally,
the farther it will go before gravity pulls
it to the ground.
When an object moves fast enough, it
will go far enough as it falls to miss
the Earth and stay in orbit.
Orbital Motion: Baseballs in
Orbit 12 Km/sec 12 Km/sec
8 Km/sec D
G 8 Km/sec

5m 5 Km/sec
5 Km/sec
5m
5m

For that second of travel, gravity will pull the baseball approximately 5 meters towards
the earth
For every 8Km traveled the earths surface given that it is curved, drops 5 meters from
under the object in motion
So if my baseball is traveling 8Km/sec the distance downward caused by gravity is
offset by the curvature drop-off of the earth, hence. An orbit is sustained
 Orbital Motion: Baseballs in
Orbit
Therefore, a baseball thrown fast
enough to cover exactly 8 kilometers
in the time it takes the ball to fall 5
meters will be in a circular orbit.
Increasing velocity (adding more
energy) will make it an elliptical
orbit, unless escape velocity is
reached
Orbital Velocity
Orbital velocity the speed an object must maintain to stay in orbit
The closer an object is to Earth, the faster it needs to travel to remain in orbit
The higher a spacecraft climbs from Earth, the slower it can travel and still
resist gravity

At an altitude of 124 miles the required orbital velocity is just over 17,000 mph (about 27,400 kph). To maintain
an orbit that is 22,223 miles above Earth, the satellite must orbit at a speed of about 7,000 mph . That orbital
speed and distance permits the satellite to make one revolution in 24 hours.
Orbiting Around a Soda Can
On top we have an orbit around a soda can.
If we draw a line on the soda can directly
below the orbit wed get a ground track.
If we cut the soda can in half and laid it flat,
the shape of the ground track is as shown in
the lower figure.

10
Non-Rotating Earth
Heres what a ground track would look like for a non-
rotating Earth if we stretch the Earth onto a flat-map
projection.
Notice that the ground track is made by a spacecraft
in orbit around Earththis orbit is a great circle.
Add Earths Rotation
Non-Rotating Earth

This is a typical low

Earth orbit.
The map moves
eastward so the
second orbit ground
track looks like it
moved to the west.
Rotating Earth
Types of Orbits
Low-Earth orbit an orbit up to about 1,240 miles above the Earth
Medium-Earth orbit one with an altitude of about 12,400 miles
High-Earth orbit an orbit at an altitude of about 22,300 miles
Types of Orbits
Low Earth Orbit (LEO)
Lowest altitude a spacecraft must achieve
to in order to orbit the Earth (520 km
altitude )
Spacecraft in these orbits circle the Earth
approximately every 90 minutes or so.
Used for things that we want to visit often like the
Hubble Space Telescope and the International Space
Station
A significant disadvantage is the speed of the
satellite which at 18,000 miles per hour in LEO does
not spend very long over any one part of the Earth at Apogee
a given time.

Perigee
Types of Orbits
Polar Orbits
These orbits have an inclination near 90 degrees.
This allows the satellite to see virtually every part
of the Earth as the Earth rotates underneath it.
It takes approximately 90 minutes for the satellite
to complete one orbit.

90 deg
Types of Orbits
Geosynchronous (Geostationary) Orbits (GEO)
Orbits with a period of about 24 hours.
Since it matches the revolution cycle of the earth, it holds stationary over a given
point of the earths surface
Disadvantage is the expense in putting a satellite into high orbit nor is it possible to
repair it via the space shuttle.
Geosynchronous orbit is over Earths equator and is called a Geostationary orbit
Types of Orbits
 Orbital Mechanics 101,
Part I
Understand basic orbital
mechanics and how orbits
work
Understand the different
types of orbits used for
different purposes