Ground Improvement Methods for discussion :

1. Surface/Shallow Compaction
2. Deep Compaction
3. Preloading
4. Granular Piles
5. Chemical Stabilization, such as Lime or
Cement Stabilization
6. Grouting
7. In Situ Ground Reinforcement, such as Soil
Anchors
8. Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls
 Shallow/Surface Compaction
Compaction is a process of increasing the soil unit weight by
forcing the soil particles into a tighter state and reducing air
voids by the addition of either static or dynamic forces.

Load
soil (2)> soil (1)

Air
Air

Water Water
Soil
Matrix Compressed
soil
Solids Solids

WT1 WT1
soil (1)= soil (2)=
VT1 VT2
What is different between Compaction and Consolidation ??
 What is different between Compaction and
Consolidation ?

Compaction
Densification of soil by removing air from the voids.

Consolidation
Densification of soil by removing water from the
voids.
Objectives of compaction :
1. Decrease future settlements
2. Increase shear strength
3. Decrease permeability
4. Control swelling and contraction
5. Increases slope stability of embankments

Five factors affecting compaction :

1. Physical & chemical properties
2. Moisture content
3. Method of compaction
4. Amount of compactive effort
5. Thickness of layer or lift being compacted
 Soil Properties

The following physical properties of soil has direct

effect on the compaction efforts:
Particle size distribution
Shape of particles
Specific gravity of solids
Amount and type of clay minerals
Texture of soils
Maximum dry densities range from 60 lbs per cu ft to
145 for well graded soils. The OMC may range from
5% for granular material to about 35% for plastic
material.
 Moisture Content and Compaction

The degree of compaction of soil is measured by its unit weight,

and optimum moisture content, wc.
By reducing the air voids, more soil can be added to the block.
When moisture is added to the block (water content, wc, is
increasing) the soil particles will slip more on each other causing
more reduction in the total volume, which will result in adding
more soil and, hence, the dry density will increase, accordingly.
Increasing Wc will increase to certain limit called Optimum
moister Content, (OMC).
After this limit Increasing Wc will decrease
 Compaction Efforts
The increase in amount of compaction (energy applied per unit of
volume) results in an increase in the maximum dry density and
decrease the OMC.

In laboratory compaction efforts are applied through:

Standard Proctor Test
Modified Proctor Test
In both the cases the compaction energy is given as

The degree of compaction is not directly proportional to

compaction efforts and dry density doesnt increase indefinitely.
When the soil is initially loose, the compaction increases the dry
density, but further compaction beyond certain point doesnt
increase the density.
Soil Compaction in the
Lab :
1. Standard Proctor Test
2. Modified Proctor Test

Modified Proctor Test

 Gs w
Soil Compaction in the ZAV =
Lab : Gs w 1+ WcGs
dry Sr

1. Standard Proctor Test 1e Dry Density

Zero Air Void Curve
Sr =100%
5.5 pound hammer

d max
3
H = 12 in
4

2
5
25 1
blows
per
layer Compaction
wc1 wc2 wc3 wc4 wc5 Dry to Wet to
Optimum Optimum
Curve

d1 d2 d3 d4 d5 (OWC) Water
Content
Optimum
Increasing Water Content Water
Content

wet
4 inch diameter compaction mold.
(V = 1/30 of a cubic foot)
dr =
y 1+ Wc%
100
 Soil Compaction in the Lab :

Zero Air Void Curve

1- Standard Proctor Test Dry Density
Sr = 60%
Zero Air Void Curve
ASTM D-698 or AASHTO T-99 Sr =100%

d max
Energy = 12,375 foot-pounds per cubic foot
Zero Air Void Curve
d max
Sr < 100%

Compactio
2- Modified Proctor Test n
ASTM D-1557 or AASHTO T-180 Curve for
Modified
Proctor

Energy = 56,520 foot-pounds per cubic foot

Compaction
Curve for Standard
Proctor

(OMC) Moisture
(OMC)
Content

Number of blows per layer x Number of layers x Weight of hammer x Height of drop hammer
Energy =
Volume of mold
Effect of Energy on Soil Compaction

Increasing compaction energy Lower OWC and higher dry density

Higher
Dry Density
Energy

In the field
increasing compaction

ZA
energy = increasing

V
number of passes or
reducing lift depth

In the lab
increasing compaction
energy = increasing
number of blows

Water Content
Field Soil Compaction
Because of the differences between lab and field compaction methods,
the maximum dry density in the field may reach 90% to 95%.

Dry Density
ZAV

d max

d max

Moisture
(OMC)
Content
Field Compaction depends on:
Weight of roller
No of passes of roller

Relative compaction is given in specification for field

compaction, which is the ratio of field dry density to
the maximum lab density, whereas the Lab dry
density is determined by Standard or Modified
AASHTO tests.

For example 95% compaction of modified AASHTO

dry density.
 Field Compaction Equipment

Smooth-wheel roller
(drum)
100% coverage under the
wheel
Contact pressure up to 400
kPa
Can be used on all soil
types except for rocky soils
Compactive effort : static
weight

14
 Field Compaction Equipment

Pneumatic (or rubber-

tired) roller
80% coverage under the
wheel
Contact pressure up to 700
kPa

7 to 13 wheels are
arranged in
two rows.
Can be used for both
granular and fine-grained
soils.
Compactive effort : static
weight and kneading. 15
 Field Compaction Equipment

Sheepsfoot
8%rollers
~ 12 % coverage
Contact pressure is from
1400 to 7000 kPa.
Compactive effort: static
weight and kneading.

Suitable for :
fine grained soils
sands and gravels (with
>20% fines)

Unsuitable for:
very coarse soils
uniform gravels

16
 Field Compaction Equipment

Mesh (or grid

pattern)
50% coverage roller
Masses range from 5-12
Tones
Contact pressure is from
1400 to 6200 kPa

Compactive effort: static

Suitable
weight for:
and vibration.
well-graded sands
soft rocks
stony soils with fine
fractions
Unsuitable for:
uniform sands
Silty sands
Very soft clays
17
 Field Compaction Equipment

Vibrating drum on smooth-wheel roller

Compactive effort: static

weight and vibration.
Suitable for granular soils

18
 Field Compaction Equipment

Vibrating Plate :
Suitable for :
most soils with low to
moderate
fines content

Unsuitable for:
large volume work
wet clayey soils
Power Rammer :
Also called a trench tamper
Suitable for :
trench back-fill
work in confined areas
Unsuitable for:
large volume work

19
 Field Compaction Testing

Nuclear Density Sand Cone

 Field Compaction Testing

Sand Cone (ASTM D1556-90)

A small hole (6" x 6" deep) is dug in the compacted material to be tested.
The soil is removed and weighed, then dried and weighed again to
determine its moisture content. A soil's moisture is figured as a
percentage. The specific volume of the hole is determined by filling it with
calibrated dry sand from a jar and cone device. The dry weight of the soil
removed is divided by the volume of sand needed to fill the hole. This
gives us the density of the compacted soil in lbs per cubic foot. This
density is compared to the maximum Proctor density obtained earlier,
which gives us the relative density of the soil that was just compacted.

Balloon Dens meter

same as the sand cone, except a rubber
oon is used to determine the volume of the hole

- Nuclear Density (ASTM D2292-91)

Nuclear Density meters are a quick and fairly accurate way of determining density and moisture content.
The meter uses a radioactive isotope source (Cesium 137) at the soil surface (backscatter) or from a probe
placed into the soil (direct transmission). The isotope source gives off photons (usually Gamma rays)
which radiate back to the mater's detectors on the bottom of the unit. Dense soil absorbs more radiation
than loose soil and the readings reflect overall density. Water content (ASTM D3017) can also be read, all
within a few minutes.
 Field Compaction Testing

Field Density Testing Method

Sand Cone Balloon Dens meter Shelby Tube Nuclear Gauge

Large sample Fast Fast

Large sample
Advantages Direct reading obtained Deep sample Easy to redo
Accurate
Open graded material Under pipe haunches More tests (statistical reliability)

Many steps
Small Sample No sample
Large area required Slow
No gravel Radiation
Disadvantages Slow Balloon breakage
Sample not always Moisture suspect
Halt Equipment Awkward
retained Encourages amateurs
Tempting to accept flukes

Void under plate Miscalibrated

Surface not level Overdrive
Sand bulking Rocks in path
Errors Soil pumping Rocks in path
Sand compacted Surface prep required
Void under plate Plastic soil
Soil pumping Backscatter

Cost Low Moderate Low High

22
Thickness of Layer
Exercise :
The laboratory test for a standard proctor is shown below.
Determine the optimum water content and maximum dry
density. If the Gs of the soil is 2.70, draw the ZAV curve.

Volume of Weight Water

Proctor of wet Content
Mold soil in (%)
(ft3) the mold
(lb)
12
1/30 3.88 14
1/30 4.09 16
1/30 4.23 18
1/30 4.28 20
1/30 4.24 22
1/30 4.19