Water Supply: A Singapore Success Story

WATER
SUPPLY
Environmental Engineering Sem 2 2011/2012 1

INTRODUCTION
Malaysia was reported to receive rainfall of 324billion m 3/year in
year 20001. It distributed to surface runoff and evapo-transpiration
about 152 billion m3/year respectively and only 20 billion m3/year
becomes groundwater.
Malaysias water status are diverse, increase and competing needs.

However the future forecast ( done by SMHB) indicated that water
supply demand cannot be met in many locations due to
uneven rainfall distribution, temporally or spatialy
degradation in the raw water supply catchments, because of Un-
control opening of
forested areas (logging, roads, urbanizations) resulting in massive
sedimentation
flow into rivers
Pollution in rivers as it passes urban areas, reaches between raw
water source
catchment/storages & downstream water supply intake
1 -Ir Salmah Zakaria (2008) , Water Resources and Global Warming: Focus, Water Supply , Meeting of Water Supply
Senior Officer, Equatorial Hotel, KL.

INTRODUCTION
Humans are defending on water supply for
the daily basis routine. . Therefore we A Singapore Success Story
should not keep throwing everything into On 27 February 1977, at the
the river. Consequently, the cost of water opening of the Upper Pierce
Reservoir, the prime Minister, Lee
treatment will be higher and not KuanYew said It should be a way of
affordable any longer. Freshwater is finite life to keep the waters clean .. In ten
years let us have fishing in the
and water should be treated as a Singapore River and in the Kallang
commodity. River.In October 1977, The Ministry
of the Environment , submitted an
Action Plan to the Prime Minister
We should learn from other on what they
Singapore River and in Kallang Basin
have been doing to have a sustainable
How did they do it?
water supply.
5,000 hawkers were relocated into
food centres
26,000 squatter families were
resettled to HDB flats
Moved factories to JTC, then only
Removed more than 200 tonnesof
rubbish
Upgrade the riverside walkway
along the river
Upgrade parking lots along rivers
Developed recreational areas along
rivers
Sand was brought in to form
beaches for recreation

INTRODUCTION
In Malaysia, the worst water crisis happen in year 1998

for Klang Valley residents. The main reasons for the water crisis
development
were due: of the resource and treatment facilities could not
meet the rapid
pace of urbanisation and industrialisation;
a prolonged drought causing the reduction of flows in the
rivers and the
subsequent decrease in the reservoir levels;
the low flows in the rivers were insufficient to dilute the
pollutant loads
resulting frequent closures of water treatment plants and
High water losses due to leakages in the distribution systems
and pilferages

WATER QUANTITY REQUIREMENT
Water supply is required for domestic and industrial, agriculture,
environment and Bio-Diversity, hydropower, transportation and
recreation.
In Malaysia at year 20072, about 14,278 MLD water treated from 462
numbers of water treatment plants. The water demand is 12,330 MLD,
most serves for urban area compared to rural .The water being used
by 27 Million people.
2 -Ir Noor Azahari Zainal (2008) , Operational Aspects of WaterDemand Management- For Domestic &
Industrial Use, Meeting of Water Supply Senior Officer, Equatorial Hotel, KL.


Most of treated water was used for domestic and industrial besides
agricultural. At year 2010 (Table 3. 1), the water consumption is
slightly higher for irrigation, However by the year 2020 to 2050, more
treated water will be used for domestic and industrial activity.
Table 3.1: Water Demand for Malaysia from 2000 to 2050
2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050

Domestic 3483 5579 7423 8937 10268 11544
&
Industrial
(mil
m3/yr)
Irrigation 7350 6517 6517 6132 6132 6132
(mil
m3/yr)
Total 10833 12086 13940 15069 16400 17676
(mil
m3/yr)

WATER SOURCES
Groundwater Vs Surface
water
Seawater
Groundwater Surface water
constant variable
Groundwater
shallow wells composition composition
deep wells high mineral low mineral
content content
low turbidity high turbidity
Surface water low color colored
rivers low or no D.O. D.O. present
lakes CO2, H2S may be low hardness
Reservoirs
present taste and odor
high hardness Clay, silt, NOM
high Fe, Mn

WATER TREATMENT
In practice, all public water supplies undergo some form of treatment,
with the degree of the treatment being dependent on the quality of
the raw water supply.
The quality of treated water is now almost standardized in the

developed world, with treatment facilities having to satisfy many
water quality parameters on a frequent monitoring basis.
The aim of water treatment is to produce water;

That is palatable
esthetically pleasing
presence of chemicals does not pose a threat to human health
includes chloride, color, corrosivity, iron, manganese, taste
and odor
That is potable
Safe to drink protective of human health
Not necessarily esthetically pleasing
That meets regulatory criteria/standards
Without interruption
At reasonable cost.

TREATED WATER QUALITY STANDARD*
Parameter Unit Raw Water Treated

s (average) Water
pH pH 5.8 -6.9 6.5 - 9
Iron mg/l < 1.0 < 0.3
Manganese mg/l < 0.2 < 0.1
Turbidity NTU 300 <5
Suspended mg/l 100 -

Solid
DO ppm 4-7 8 -10
Color TCU 300 < 15
Aluminium mg/l < 0.1 < 0.2

Fluoride ppm < 1.5 0.5 0.7
Res. Chlorine ppm - 1.5 2.5
Ammonia ppm - < 1.5
* SAJ Holdings Sdn Bhd

TYPES OF WATER TREATMENT PLANT
Objective: to remove turbidity and color from
surface water
Plant : Filtration Plant /Coagulation
Plant/Conventional Plant

Objective: to remove the hardness of the mineral
Plant : Softening Plant
Recarbonation to adjust final pH

Mechanism
A process in which carbon dioxide is bubbled into the water being treated to lower
the pH. The pH may also be lowered by the addition of acid.
Recarbonation process converts carbonate ions to bicarbonate ions and stabilizes
the solution against the precipitation of carbonate compounds.
Ca2+(aq)+Ca2+(aq)+2 CO32-(aq)-> 2CaCO3(s)from water from lime
ash precipitate
CO2(g) + H2O (l)->H2CO3(aq)
H2CO3(aq)+OH-(aq)->H2O+HCO3-(aq)

Why Use Recarbonation?The purpose of the Recarbonation basins are to neutralize
the pH of the highly alkaline water produced during chemical clarification.
120 ppm of CO2is added to the basins with a total detention time= 1.34 hrs.

Objective: to remove sulfide

Plant : Groundwater Plant
CO2 H S
Air 2
Well Aeration Storage P
Disinfectant

THE GENERAL PURPOSE OF WATER TREATMENT
PROCESS
Pre chlorination - used for disinfection of the raw water only if it does
not result in formation of thrihalomethane.
Pre - To reduce silt and settleable organic matter prior to
sedimentation chemical treatment
Coagulation - alum/ other chemicals are added to water to form
tiny sticky particle called floc.
Flocculation - is the process of the aggregation of the destabilized
particles and precipitation products.
Sedimentation - To remove the particles and precipitate by
gravitational settling.
Filtration - To remove even smaller particles.
Flouridation - Fluoride is added into water to prevent incident in
dental caries.
Disinfection - Chlorine/disinfectant is added to kill any bacteria or
microorganism that may be in the water.
Post - To form and remain the residual chlorine in the
Chlorination distribution system.
Activated - To remove odor and taste producing compound.
WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES
Water treatment processes are depending on the water sources.
There are 4 classes of water treatment as shown in Table 3.2. The
treatment processes may be difference from one to another as
shown in Table 3.3. The typical water treatment process is shown
in Figure 3.2.
Table 3.2 Classes of Water Treatment

Clas Description Source
s
A No treatment Some borehole water
B Disinfection only Occasional upland water
Some borehole water
C Standard Water Occasional upland water
Treatment Lowland rivers and reservoirs
D Some rural supplies (Fe and Mn), Colour
Special Water removal
Treatment Trace element removal, Industrial Water
Electronics industry requirement, Algae
removal
Organic removal

WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES
Table 3.3 Flow Chart Outline of Water Treatment
Processes
Treatment Groundwate Standard WaterSpecial Water Treatment
Categorization r SupplyTreatment Class D
Class B Class C
Intake Intake Intake
Pre treatment Aeration Coarse screening, Fine Screening, Pumping,
Screening,Pumping , Storage, Equalization
Storage,Equalization, Neutralization, Aeration
Neutralization,Aeration Softening, Algae removal
Chemical pre-treatment
Primary Coagulation and mixing Coagulation and mixing,
Treatment Flocculation, Flocculation,Sedimentati
Sedimentation on
Secondary Filtration Filtration
treatment
Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection
Advance Adsorption,Activated
Treatment carbon,Membrane
Process
Halogenated compound
removal, Fe and Mn
removal
Fluoridation Fluoridation Fluoridation Fluoridation
Distribution Yes Yes Yes
network
What are the common
raw water sources
used in Malaysia?
As an engineer, you
are asked to select the
appropriate water
treatment plant.
What will be your
selection? Why?
List the primary
treatment.
What are the common raw water sources
used in Malaysia?
Answer : River water and lake
As an engineer, you are asked to select the
appropriate water treatment plant.
What will be your selection?
Answer : Coagulation plant/ Conventional plant ( Refer Slide 19,

the common practice in Malaysia)
Why?
Answer : We use the river water as an intake
List the primary treatment.
Answer: Coagulation and mixing Flocculation, Sedimentation

- - - Our concern
Raw water source
Intake
Disinfection
Aerator & Re-adjustment
Chemical Dosage Hydrated Lime
Hydrated Lime-Softening Chlorine
Alum- Coagulation Flouride
Pump station
Chemical Flocculation Sedimentation Filtration Clean Water Tank

Pre-Treatment Tank Tank
Distribution Tank Distribution Tank
Balancing Tank
Consumer Consumer
loss,
entrain suspended
matter, trap
INTAKE
Raw water intakes withdraw water fish, and other
from a river, lake, or reservoir aquatic animals.
( surface water source) over a Velocity below 8 cm/s
predetermined range of pool levels. allows
aquatic animal to
Intake site selections depend on : escape, and
Water quality minimize the suspended
Water depth matter
Stream or current velocities Intake-port location-
Access Water
Power availability quality in each
Proximity to water treatment plant stratum may vary.
Environmental impact To achieve, multiple
Hazard to navigate intake ports
set at various levels
Raw water intake structures control are generally
withdrawal of raw water from a provided
surface water source. Intake Top intake less than
structure contains gates, screens, 2 m below
control valves, pumps, chemical normal level.
feeders, flow meters, offices and Bottom intake least 1
machine shop. m above
INTAKE
Types of intake structures; floating intake ( Figure 3.3),
submerged intake, pier intake, tower intake ( Figure 3.4),
exposed or tower intake and shore intake
Figure 3.3 Floating intake
Figure 3.4: Tower intake

AERATION
To create turbulence to provide for the maximum contact
between water and air to achieve desired dissolved oxygen
content at ambient temperature and pressure .
It can be a simple mechanical process of spraying water into the

air and allowing it to fall over a series of cascades (waterfalls)
( Figure 3.5), multiple platform aerator- tray ( Figure 3.6) venturi
aerator, draft-tube aerator while absorbing or desorbing oxygen
in its journey.
Figure 3.5 Cascade Figure

3.6 Tray
AERATION
To supply of O2 from the atmosphere to water to effect
beneficial changes in the water quality.
To release excess H2S gas which may cause undesirable
tastes and odor.
To release excess CO2 which may have corrosive tendencies
on concrete materials.
To increase the O2 content of water which may have negative
taste, color and stain properties due to the presence of Fe
and Mn in solution ( Mostly for groundwater) . The addition of
oxygen assists the precipitation of Fe and Mn as following:
4Fe2+ + O2 + 10 H20 4 Fe(OH)3 (s) + 8H+
2Mn2+ + O2 + 2 H20 2 MnO2 (s)

+ 4H+
Environmental Engineering Sem 2 2011/2012

26
AERATION
Example
Parit Raja Water Treatment Plant has a plant capacity of 60 MLD.

Calculate
the required water surface area of a cascade used for aeration.
Solution:
To calculate exposed water surface area, we used design criteria of

10 m2 of
exposed water surface for every 50L/s of design flow.
Design capacity = 10 m2 of exposed water surface

50 L/s of designed flow
Water surface area = 10 m2 x 60 MLD
50 L/s
= 10 m2 x 60 x 10
6
L/D
50 L x 60 s x 60 min x 24 hr
s min hr day
= 10 m2 _x 60 x 10 6 L/D
4320000 L/D
= 138.8 140 m2
SOFTENING
The removal of ions that cause hardness is called SOFTENING.
This process is common for groundwater source.
Hardness in natural waters comes from the dissolution of minerals

from geologic formation that contain calcium and magnesium . Two
common minerals are calcite and dolomite. The natural process by
which water become hard is shown below.

SOFTENING
Hardness is a term often used to characterize the ability of a water to:
ocause soap scum
Ca2+ + (Soap)- Ca(Soap)2 (s)
oincrease the amount of soap needed
ocause scaling on pipes
ocause valves to stick due to the formation of calcium carbonate crystals
Total
oleaveHardness (TH)
stains on plumbing fixtures
Technically - the
sum of all polyvalent
cations
Description Hardness range (mg/L as
Practically - the
CaCO3)
amount of calcium
and magnesium ions Extremely 0 - 50
(the predominant soft
minerals in natural Very soft 50 100
waters) Moderately 100 150
(TH = Ca2+ + Mg2+) hard
It is divided into Hard 150 - 300
carbonate (CH) and Very hard > 300
noncarbonate
hardness (NCH), (TH
= CH + NCH)
SOFTENING
Carbonate Hardness (CH)
associated with HCO3-, CO32-
CH = TH or Total alkalinity, whichever is less
Often called "temporary hardness" because heating the
water will remove it. When the water is heated, the insoluble
carbonates will precipitate and tend to form bottom deposits in
water heaters.
Ca2+ + 2HCO3- CaCO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O
Non-Carbonate Hardness
NCH = TH - CH
If Alkalinity Total hardness, then NCH = 0
Called permanent hardness because it is not removed when
the water is heated. It is much more expensive to remove
non-carbonate hardness than carbonate hardness.
Ca2+, Mg2+ associated with other ions, Cl-, NO3-, SO42-

SOFTENING
Example
A sample of water having a pH of 7.2 has the following concentrations of ions
Ca2+ 40 mg/L
Mg 2+
10 mg/L
Na+ 11.8 mg/L
K +
7.0 mg/L
HCO3 -
110 mg/L
SO42- 67.2 mg/L
Cl- 11 mg/L
Calculate the TH, CH, NCH, Alkalinity, and construct a bar chart of the constituents
Solution
Ion Conc. M.W. n
Eq. Wt. Conc. Conc.
mg/L mg/mmo mg/meq meq/L mg/L
(ion conc. /
l EW)
as
CaCO3
Ca2+ 40.0 40.1 2 20.05 1.995 99.8*
Mg2+ 10.0 24.3 2 12.15 0.823 41.2
Na+ 11.8 23.0 1 23.0 0.510 25.7
K+ 7.0 39.1 1 39.1 0.179 8.95
HCO3- 110.0 61.0 1 61.0 1.800 90.2
SO42- 67.2 96.1 2 48.05 1.400 69.9
Cl- 11.0 35.5 1 35.5 0.031 15.5
*Sample Calculation: Concentration of Ca2+ in mg/L as CaCO3 =
(Concentration in meq/L) *
(Equivalent Weight of CaCO3) = (1.995 meq/L) X (50 mg/meq) = 99.8
mg/L as CaCO3
SOFTENING
Check Solution
(Cation)s = (Anion)s
175.6 = 175.6
Note: to within 10% mg/L as CaCO3
Total Hardness
= of multivalent cations
= (Ca2+) + (Mg2+)
= 99.8 + 41.2
= 141 mg/L as CaCO3
Alkalinity = (HCO32-) + (CO32-) + (OH-) - (H+)

Since pH = 7.2 (neutral pH, OH- & H+ are negligible)
Alkalinity (HCO32-) = (1.80 x 10-3) eq/L
Alkalinity = (1.80 x 10-3 eq/L)(50 g/eq)(1000 mg/g)
= 90.1 mg/L as CaCO3
Carbonate Hardness (the portion of the hardness

associated with carbonate or bicarbonate)
Alkalinity = 90.1 mg/L as CaCO3
TH = 141 mg/L as CaCO3
CH = 90.1 mg/L as CaCO3
(Note: if TH < Alk then CH = TH; and NCH = 0 )
Non-carbonate Hardness
NCH = TH - CH = 141 - 90.1 =50.9 mg/L as CaCO3
SOFTENING
Softening can be accomplished by the lime soda process, ion
exchange, nanofiltration and reverse osmosis. Lime soda softening is
discussed in this chapter.
Lime-Soda Softening
-it is possible to calculate the chemical doses necessary to
remove hardness
-hardness precipitation is based on the Tofollowing two solubility
supply hydroxyl ions, the
reaction:
To supply carbonate ions, the economic way is to buy LIME
chemical used is SODA ( CaO) , then mix with water to
( Na2CO3) produce Ca(OH)2 (hydrated lime)
Ca2+ + CO32- CaCO3 (s) Mg2+ + 2OH- MgOH2 (s)

SOFTENING
Softening Reactions
The softening reactions are regulated by controlling the pH.

FIRST any free acids are neutralized
THEN- pH is raised to precipitate the CaCO3; if necessary
- pH is raised further to remove Mg(OH)2
FINALLY if necessary, CO32- is added to precipitate the
noncarbonate
Six important hardness
softening
reactions are shown.
1
In each case, the chemical

2
that has been added to the
3
water is printed in bold type.
4
Designation (s) is for solid, 5
hence indicates that the

6
substance has been removed
from the water.
In reality they occur

SOFTENING
Magnesium is MORE EXPENSIVE to remove than calcium, then we leave
as much Mg 2+ as possible in the water.
The removal of non-carbonate hardness is MORE EXPENSIVE , because

we must add the CO32- ( in term of SODA) therefore we leave as much
non-carbonate hardness as possible in the water.
Traditionally, the final total hardness is set of 75 to 120 mg/L as CaCO 3,

however due to the economic constraints, many utilities will operate at
total hardness of 140 -150 mg/L as CaCO3.
Concurrent removal of Limitation
other species Because of the solubility of CaCO3
Natural Organic Matter (s) and MgOH2 (s), ideal mixing is
(NOM) prohibited some hardness ions
Turbidity remain in solution
Other metals insufficient time for reactions
Minimum Ca hardness ~ 30 mg/L as
CaCO3
Minimum Mg hardness ~ 10 mg/L as
CaCO3
SOFTENING
(1) NEUTRALIZATION OF CARBONIC ACID(H 2CO3)
- Add lime
- To neutralize any free acids ( acid carbonic) that may be present in the water
- NO hardness is removed in this step
CO2 + Ca(OH)2 CaCO3(s) + H2O
(2) PRECIPITATION OF CARBONATE HARDNESS

DUE-add
TO CALCIUM
lime
-pH must be raised up to 10.3 to percipitate the
calcium carbonate
-To achieve this pH , convert all of the bicarbonate to
carbonate
Ca + 2HCO + Ca(OH)
2+
-The carbonate then -
3 serves as common2ion for
percipitation reaction
2CaCO + 2H O3(s) 2

With the aid of
chemical equation,
show the formation
of carbonic acid

SOFTENING
(3) Precipitation of carbonate hardness due to magnesium
Must add more lime to achieve a pH about
11.
The reaction may be considered to occur It is SOLUBLE.so
the hardness of
in two stages. water did not
First stage occurs when we convert all of CHANGE
the bicarbonate to carbonate
Mg2+ + 2HCO3- + Ca(OH)2 MgCO3+ CaCO3(s) + 2H2O
Second stage- addition of more lime
Mg2+ + CO32- + Ca(OH)2 MgOH2(s)+ CaCO3(s)

4) Removal Of Noncarbonate Hardness Due To
Calcium
NO further increase in pH is required.
Provide additional carbonate in the form of soda ash
Ca2+ + Na2CO3 CaCO3(s) + 2Na+

SOFTENING
5) Removal Of Noncarbonate Hardness Due To Magnesium
not much changes
in hardness . We
-First add lime still HAVE Ca2+
Mg2+ + Ca(OH)2 MgOH2(s)+

Ca2+
-to eliminate Ca2+ , add soda
Ca2+ + Na2CO3 CaCO3(s) + 2Na+

SOFTENING
Flow
diagram
for
solving
softening
problem
( all
addition
as
CaCOmg/L
3)
as

SOFTENING
Example
From the water analysis presented below, determine the amount of lime
and soda (mg/L as CaCO3) to soften the water to 120 mg/L as CaCO3
Water composition (mg/L as CaCO3)
.
Ca2+ = 149.2 CO2 = 29.3 HCO3-= 185.0
Mg2+ = 65.8 SO42-=29.8
Na+ = 17.4 Cl-= 17.6
Solution
2) From the bar chart , we
1) Plot the bar chart as shown below note following
149.2 + 65.8
TH = 215 mg/L as CaCO3
CH = 185 mg/L as CaCO3
if TH > alk CH =
Alk
NCH = 30 mg/L as CaCO3
NCH = TH -CH
185 + 29.8
SOFTENING
3) Follow the logic of Figure in Slide 38, calculate the lime
dose as follows
Step Dose (mg/L as CaCO3)
Lime = CO2 29.3
- 185.0
Lime = HCO3
Lime = Mg2+ - 40 = 65.8 - 40 25.8
Lime = excess 25.8
TOTAL = 265.9
CH left due to solubility &

other factors (30 Ca, 10-mg
4) Calculate NCH left and NCH removed =40 mg/l as CaCO3)
NCH left = final desired hardness 40 NCH removed = NCH NCH left
Therefore,
NCH left = 120 40 = 80 mg/L
NCH removed = NCHi-NCHleft=30 80 = -50 ( negative is
indicating there is no need to remove NCH, no SODA
required )

WHY COLLOIDS ARE
SUSPENDED IN
SOLUTION
HOW TO REMOVE
COLLOIDS ????

COAGULATION and FLOCCULATION
Surface water contains organic and inorganic particles.
Particle such as clay, and colloids remain in suspension without

aggregating for long periods of time. Consequently the particle
cannot be removed by sedimentation in a reasonable amount of
time.
Majority of ions in surface water consist of negatively charged

particle/colloids which are stable in nature ( stable = existing in
ionized form) .
They repel
other colloidal particles
before they
collide with one
another. The
colloids are
continually
involved in Brownian
How to destabilize the particles???
Neutralize the charge by addition of an ion opposite to it ( Destabilization)
-by addition of divalent or trivalent ion it will reduce colloid charge even faster.
The lower the charge, the lower repelling forces around the colloid.
Particles (stable Destabilization (Coagulation) Flocculation

ve charge)
Al 3+ /
Fe3+
Al 3+ /
Fe3+ Al(OH)3 (s) @ Fe(OH)3 (s)
Settle down at the bottom of

the flocculation tank

Coagulation process utilizes what is known as a chemical
coagulant is mixed thoroughly with the water and various species of
the positively charged particles adsorb to the negatively charged
colloids such as colour, clay, turbidity and other particles through the
processes of charge neutralisation to produce microfloc.
Once the charge is neutralized, the small suspended particles are

capable of sticking together. The slightly larger particles, formed
through this process and called microflocs, are not visible to the
naked eye.
The water surrounding the newly formed microflocs should be clear. If

it is not, all the particles' charges have not been neutralized, and
coagulation has not been carried to completion. More coagulant may
need to be added.
Microfloc itself is not yet settleable , then flocculation process takes

place.

Flocculation is the process in which the destabilised
particles are bound together by hydrogen bonding of Van der
Waals forces to form larger particle flocs.
High molecular
weight polymers,
called coagulant aids,
may be added during
this step to help
bridge, bind, and
strengthen the floc,
add weight, and
increase settling rate.
Once the floc has
reached it optimum
size and strength, the
water is ready for the
sedimentation
process.
COAGULANT:
is the substance (chemical) that is added to the water to
destabilize particles and accomplish coagulation
PROPERTIES OF COAGULANT
o Trivalent cations
o Nontoxic: obvious for the production of safe water

o inexpensive
o Insoluble in the neutral pH. The coagulant that is added must
percipitate out of solution so that high concentration of the
ion are not left in the water. Such precipitation greatly
influenced the colloidal removal process
Types of coagulant commonly used
Coagulant type examples

Inorganic Aluminium sulfate (Al2(SO4)314H2O,
metallic sodium aluminate, aluminium chloride,
coagulant ferric sulfate and ferric chloride
Prehydrolyzed Made from alum and iron salts and
metal salts hydroxide under controlled condition;
polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Organic polymers Cationic polymers, anionic polymers, and
nonionic polymers
Natural plant- Opuntia spp. And Moringa Oleifera (used
based materials in many parts of the world esp.
developing country.

How does alum works? Alum sludge=alum floc =dry sludge
(without water, H2O=Al(OH)3) , settle in
In sufficient alkalinity in the water the flocculation tank
1Al2(SO4)314H2O + 6HCO3-2[Al(OH) 3 3H2O](s) + 6CO2 +8H2O + 3SO42-
1 mole of alum added uses 6 moles of alkalinity and produces 6 moles of
The above reaction shifts

the carbonate equilibrium
and decreases the pH
- +
However, as long as HCO3 + H = H2CO3(Acid
sufficient alkalinity is Carbonic)
present and CO2 (g) is
allowed to evolve, the pH
is not drastically reduced
and is generally not an
COAGULATION
Example
and FLOCCULATION
Calculate the amount of alum sludge produced and alkalinity (HCO3- ) consumed when 1 mg/L alum wa
used.
Solution
Chemical reaction
Al2(SO4)314H2O + 6HCO3- 2Al(OH)3(s) + 6CO2 + 3SO42- + 14H2O
Molecular weight( MW)

MWalum = 594 g/mole (Al2(SO4)314H2O)
MWalkalinity = 61 g/mole (HCO3- ) Unit conversion
MWalum sludge = 78 g/mole (Al(OH)3) mg/L mole/L
Solid removed when 1 mg/L alum was used,
1 mg/L = 1.684 x 10-6 moles/L
( 594 g/mole)(1000 mg/g)
Known that 1 mole/L alum yield 2 mole/L of alum sludge, therefore

Solid removed = 2 (1.684 x 10-6 moles/L) ( 78 g/mole)
= 2.6262 x 10-4 g/L
= 0.263 mg/L Unit conversion
mole/L mg/L
Alkalinity consumed when 1 mg/L alum was used, used
Known that 1 mole/L alum yield 6 mole/L of alkalinity, therefore
Alkalinity removed = 6 (1.684 x 10-6 moles/L) ( 61 g/mole)
= 0.616 mg/L HCO3-
Expressed in CaCO3
= 0.616 mg/L HCO3- x EW CaCO3
EW HCO3-
= 0.616 mg/L HCO3- x 50 g/eq
61 g/eq
= 0.505 mg/L HCO as CaCO3
-
52
COAGULATION
Example
and FLOCCULATION
A 50 mg/L alum dose is used to coagulate a turbid surface water. Calculate the
amount of the
floc ( alum sludge) produces ( kg/d) if the flow is 0.04 m 3/s.
Solution:
1 mole alum will produce 2 mole alum sludge
MW alum = 594 g/mole; MW alum sludge = 78 g/mole, in this case 2 moles alum
sludge will be
produced, therefore 78x2 = 156 g/mole
= 156 ( 50 g/m3 )(0.04 m3/s) (24 x 3600 s/d) ( 1 kg/1000g)

594
= 45.4 kg/d
From chemical equation: Al2(SO4)314H2O + 6HCO3-
2Al(OH)3(s) + 6CO2 + 8 H2O + 3SO42- + 14H2O

Why trivalent cations
considered as good
coagulant?

JAR test (Figure 3.6) is a laboratory works to illustrate the
coagulation and flocculation concepts associated to nature
water. From this experiment the optimal pH, coagulant dose
,and coagulant aid could be determined.
Therefore, coagulation and flocculation designed to remove

Microorganisms and colloids that caused turbidity
Toxic compounds that are sorbed to particles
NOM (precursor of DBPs)

Example
A typical test is conducted by first dosing each jar with the same alum dose and
varying the pH in each
jar. The result s are shown in below. Find the optimal pH, coagulant dose, and the
theoretical amount of
alkalinity that would be consumed at the optimal dose.

Solution
1)Conduct the second jar test with pH 6.0 for six beakers ( Why 6? Refer to the jar
which has the
lower turbidity in jar test 1). The results are shown below
2)Construct the graph

turbidity remaining vs
alum
Dose
3)From the graph, the
optimal alum dosage
was
estimated to be 12.5
mg/L

4)theoretical amount of alkalinity that would be consumed at the optimal dose.
TRY YOURSELF !!!!

REFER to SLIDE 50-51
Answer: 6.31 mg/L HCO3- as CaCO3

Effectiveness of
Coagulation
The crux of efficient
coagulation is the
efficiency of MIXING
the coagulant with the
raw water.
Coagulation happens in
two mechanisms;
Adsorption/destabilizat
ion of the soluble
hydrolysis species on
the colloid and
destabilization
Sweep coagulation
where the colloid is
trapped in the
hydroxide precipitate

Mixing Time
The time that a fluid remains in the reactor and affects

the degree to which the reaction goes to completion.
In the ideal reactor,

t = V/Q
where ,
t = time ( in second)
V = volume ( m3)
Q = flow rate ( m3/s)
Adsorption/destabilization: t = 0.5 s
Sweep coagulation : 1 s < t < 10 s
note : real reactor do not behave as ideal reactor because

of density difference due to temperature or other causes.

Mixing equipment is need in coagulation. Why?
To dispersion of the coagulant into the raw water.
-Dispersion of the coagulant into water is called flash mixing or rapid
mixing.
-Rapid mixing aims to produce the high G.
Common alternatives for mixing when the mechanism of coagulation

is adsorption/destabilization are;
Diffusion mixing by pressured water jets
In line mechanical mixing
In line static mixing
Common alternatives for mixing when the mechanism of coagulation

is sweep coagulation are;
Mechanical mixing in stirred tanks
Diffusion by pipe grid
Hydraulic mixing

COAGULATION and
Efficiency of MIXING FLOCCULATION
is depending on the 1) velocity gradient and
2) mixing time
Velocity gradient, G
G , can be thought as the amount of shear taking place;
For coagulation, G must be higher enough. When chemical be

added, the
different G should e take into the consideration.
-1 -1
Adsorption/destabilization: 3000 s < G < 5000 s , t
= 0.5 s
Sweep coagulation : 600 s-1 < G < 1000 s-1 , 1 s < t < 10 s
Different chemicals require different velocity gradients
Power of mixture imparted to water could be calculated;
Power = G2 V
where,
G = velocity gradient, s -1
V = volume in m3
= dynamic viscosity of water, Pa.s
Example
A rapid mixer is used for the dispersion of the coagulant to
COAGULATION
achieve the
and FLOCCULATION
adsorption/destabilization reaction. If the water ( temperature 17 0
C) flows at
300 MLD, determine the volume of coagulation tank. Calculate
the power.
Given ; velocity gradient, G = 2000 s-1
Solution
For the adsorption/destabilization reaction, t should be fixed as
0.5 s.
Volume = Q t
= ( 300 x 106 L) ( 0.5 s x d x hr x min )
d 24 hr 60 min 60 s
= 1740 L x m3
1000L
= 1.74 m3
Refer to water properties, dynamic viscosity of water @17 0 C
=1.081 x 10-3 Pa.s
Refer Table
Power = G2 V
= (2000) 2 (1.74) (1.081 x 10-3)
= 7524 Watt
Note: recalculate
Environmental the
Engineering Sem power by assuming the temperature
2 2011/2012 64 of
Effectiveness of Flocculation
The crux of efficient flocculation is the efficiency of MIXING to bring
the particles into contact with one another so that they will collide,
stick together and grow to a size that will readily settle. The
mixing to to flocculate the coagulated water.
Efficiency of MIXING is depending on the 1) velocity gradient and
2)mixing time.
Velocity gradient,high
For flocculation, G enough to cause particles contact and keep the
floc from settling but low enough to prevent the floc from tearing
apart.
Mixing Time
For conventional treatment where settling follows flocculation, the

flocculation times ranges from 20 -40 minutes.

Flocculation is normally accomplished with
1) paddle flocculator or 2) baffled chamber
Coagulati Flocculati Sedimentatio

on on n
2) baffled chamber

The Recommended Standards for Water Works Great Lakes
Upper Missisippi River
Board of State Sanitary Engineers ( GLUMRB) recommended the
criteria for
flocculation tank.
1. Inlet and outlet design shall prevent short circuiting and

destruction of floc
2. Minimum flow-through velocity shall not be less than 2.5 to 7.5

mm/s with the
detention time for floc formation of at least 30 min.
3. Agitators shall be driven by variable speed drives with the

peripheral speed of
paddles ranging from 0.15 to 0.91 m/s
4. Flocculation and sedimentation basin shall be as a close

together as possible

1) In flocculation tank, flow-
through velocity is normally to
2.5 - 75 mm/s. Explain what
will be happen if the velocity
is less than 2.5 mm/s and
more than 7.5 mm/s.
1) In designing a flocculation
tank, which one of the
following parameters take
more priority: horizontal /flow
through velocity or detention
time?
2) Flocculation and settling tanks

should be as close as possible
. Why?

Either
SEDIMENTATION rectangular
oSedimentation basin or circular ,
normally 1
= clarifier = settling
unit
tank
oWater flows into the sedimentati
on system
settling basins, where
comprises
the flow is almost
of 2 tanks
devoid of turbulence.
oThe water resides
here for time periods
ranging from 2 to 8 The key parameters and typical values in
hours and flocculated the design of settling tank are:
particles settle out as - surface over flow rate 20- 35
sludge m3/day/m2
oThe sludge is - detention times 2-8 h
mechanically removed - weir overflow rate 150 300 m3
periodically /day/m
oSedimentation basin
are usually
rectangular or circular
with either a radial or
upward water flow
SEDIMENTATION
oThe design can be
*
divided into four zones:
inlet, settling, outlet and
sludge storage
Inlet zone - to evenly

distribute the flow and
suspended particles
across the section of the
settling zone*
Sludge storage zone-

depends upon the
method of cleaning, the *
frequency of cleaning and
the quantity of sludge
estimated to be
produced. Zones of sedimentation: (a) horizontal
flow clarifier , (b) upflow clarifier
Outlet zone- to remove

the settled water from the
SEDIMENTATION
Three classes of sedimentation
Type Description Example

s Water treatment Wastewater
treatment
I Settling as discrete 1. Pre-sedimentation 1. grit chamber
particles at a 2. in filter bed after
constant backwashing
settling velocity
No flocculation
during
sedimentation
II Particles that Sedimentation after 1. Primary

aggregated or alum or iron sedimentation
flocculate during coagulation 2. In settling tanks
sedimentation after trickling
filtration
3. In upper portions of
secondary clarifiers
after activated
Environmental Engineering Sem 2 2011/2012 sludge treatment
72
SEDIMENTATION
Ty Description Example
pe Water treatment Wastewater
s treatment
III Particles settle as a settling in lime soda 1. activated sludge

zone or blanket ash sedimentation sedimentation
Usually have a clear 2. sludge thickeners
interface between the
settling sludge and the
clarified effluent

SEDIMENTATION
Ideal sedimentation basins (Type 1)- UPFLOW CLARIFIER
settling velocity, vs of the particle to be removed

Velocity of water decreases as the water flows upward (overflow
rate = vo, hydraulic surface loading)
Velocity of the particle remains unchanged
If vs vo, then 100% of particles remain in tank
If vs < vo, then 0% of particles remain in tank

SEDIMENTATION
Example
The settling velocity of calcium carbonate floc formed during
flocculation is 2.1 mm/s. If the detention time in the settling
zone is 1.0 h and upflow rate is 1.75 GPM/sq ft, what is the
minimum depth of water required to ensure removal of the floc
by gravity settling. Given, I ft = 0.3048 m, 1.0 US gal =3.785L
Solution
1.75 GPM/ ft2 = 1.18 mm/s
V = 2.1 -1.18 mm/s
= 0.92 mm/s
Velocity = depth/ hour

Depth = (velocity )( hour)
=( 0.92 mm/s) ( 1 h)
= 3.3 m

SEDIMENTATION
Example
Calculate the diameter and depth of a circular clarifier for a design flow of
3800 m3/d and an overflow rate of 0.00024 m/s and a detention time of 3 h.
Calculate the weir loading rate by assuming the total effluent weir is 20 m.
Solution
Volume , V = Qt
= (3800 m3/d) ( 3/24)
= 475 m3
Q = 3800 m3/d = 0.044 m3/s
Surface overflow rate = Q/A

0.00024 m/s = 0.044 m3/s
A m2
Area, A = 183.3 m2
Volume, V = AD
D =V/A
= 475 m3/183.3 m2
= 2.59 m
Diameter = 15.3 m
Weir loading rate = Q/ Lw
= 3800 m3/d
20 m
= 190 m3/day.m ( OK!)

SEDIMENTATION
Ideal sedimentation basins (Type 1)- REGTANGULAR BASIN
Particle removal is dependent
on the overflow rate, v0
In order for particle to be
removed settling velocity ,
vs must be sufficient so that
it reaches the bottom during
the time the water resides in
the tank (td).
If Vs = Vo , then
vs = v0 , 100 % particles removed
vs > v 0 , 100 % particles should be easily removed
vs < v 0 , some fraction of the particles will be

removed P = 100 vs v0
SEDIMENTATION
Example
A water treatment plant has a horizontal flow sedimentation
tank with an
overflow rate of 17 m3/d. m2 and wishes to remove particles that
have settling
velocities of 0.1 mm/s. What percentage of removal should be
expected for each
particle in an ideal sedimentation tank?
Solution
vv0s == 17
0.1mmm/s
3
/d. m2 = ? mm/s, ( do the conversion so, V0= 0.2 mm/s
Note that
vs < v 0 , P = 100 vs / vo = 100 ( 0.1)/(0.2) = 50%
Recalculate by considering v0 are 0.2 mm/s and 1 mm/s respectively.

SEDIMENTATION
Example
Determine the surface area of a sedimentation tank .

The design flow is 0.044 m3 /s. Use a design
overflow rate of 20 m / day. Find the depth of the
sedimentation for the given overflow rate and
detention time.
Solution:
Tank 1 Tank 2
1)Find the surface area.
First change the flow rate to compatible units.

(0.044 m3/ s)(86,400 s / day) = 3801.6 m3 /day
Flocculation tank
The surface area is = 3801.6 m3 /day
20 m/ day Q = 3801.6 m3 /day
=190.m2
2) Find the length to width dimension

Common length-to-width , L: W ratios ( 2:1 < L:W <
5:1 , and lengths seldom exceed 100 m. A minimum
of two tanks is always provided.
use two tanks, each with a width of 5 m, a total

surface area of 190 m2 , Tank 1 Tank 2
L= 19m, L= 19m,
W=5 W=5
Length = 190 m2 /(2 tanks)(5 m wide) = 19 m m m
meet our length-to-width ratio of 3.8 : 1 ( OK!)
SEDIMENTATION
3) Find the tank depth.
Rule of thumb that the detention time should be 2-8 h.

Assumed the detention time of 120 min
Q = V/t
V=Qt
V = (1900.8 m3)(120 min)( d ) = 158 m3
d 1440 min
Depth= 158 m3 =1.684 m,= 1.7 m
95 m2
The final design would then be two tanks, each having the following
dimensions:
5 m wide x 19 m long x 1.7 m deep plus sludge storage depth.

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WATER

Environmental Engineering Sem 2 2011/2012 1

Malaysias water status are diverse, increase and competing needs.

Environmental Engineering Sem 2 2011/2012 2

Environmental Engineering Sem 2 2011/2012 3

In Malaysia, the worst water crisis happen in year 1998

Environmental Engineering Sem 2 2011/2012 4

Environmental Engineering Sem 2 2011/2012 5

Environmental Engineering Sem 2 2011/2012 6

Table 3.1: Water Demand for Malaysia from 2000 to 2050

2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050

Environmental Engineering Sem 2 2011/2012 7

Environmental Engineering Sem 2 2011/2012 8

The quality of treated water is now almost standardized in the

The aim of water treatment is to produce water;

Environmental Engineering Sem 2 2011/2012 9

Parameter Unit Raw Water Treated

pH pH 5.8 -6.9 6.5 - 9

Iron mg/l < 1.0 < 0.3

Manganese mg/l < 0.2 < 0.1

Turbidity NTU 300 <5

Suspended mg/l 100 -

Color TCU 300 < 15

Aluminium mg/l < 0.1 < 0.2

* SAJ Holdings Sdn Bhd

Environmental Engineering Sem 2 2011/2012 11

Recarbonation to adjust final pH

Environmental Engineering Sem 2 2011/2012 12

Environmental Engineering Sem 2 2011/2012 13

Objective: to remove sulfide

Well Aeration Storage P

Environmental Engineering Sem 2 2011/2012 15

Table 3.2 Classes of Water Treatment

Environmental Engineering Sem 2 2011/2012 17

Answer : Coagulation plant/ Conventional plant ( Refer Slide 19,

Answer: Coagulation and mixing Flocculation, Sedimentation

Environmental Engineering Sem 2 2011/2012 20

Chemical Flocculation Sedimentation Filtration Clean Water Tank

Distribution Tank Distribution Tank

Figure 3.4: Tower intake

Environmental Engineering Sem 1 2012/2013 24

It can be a simple mechanical process of spraying water into the

Figure 3.5 Cascade Figure

2Mn2+ + O2 + 2 H20 2 MnO2 (s)

Environmental Engineering Sem 2 2011/2012

Parit Raja Water Treatment Plant has a plant capacity of 60 MLD.

To calculate exposed water surface area, we used design criteria of

Design capacity = 10 m2 of exposed water surface

Hardness in natural waters comes from the dissolution of minerals

Environmental Engineering Sem 2 2011/2012 28

Environmental Engineering Sem 2 2011/2012 30

Alkalinity = (HCO32-) + (CO32-) + (OH-) - (H+)

Carbonate Hardness (the portion of the hardness

Ca2+ + CO32- CaCO3 (s) Mg2+ + 2OH- MgOH2 (s)

Environmental Engineering Sem 2 2011/2012 33

The softening reactions are regulated by controlling the pH.

In each case, the chemical

Designation (s) is for solid, 5

hence indicates that the

In reality they occur

The removal of non-carbonate hardness is MORE EXPENSIVE , because

Traditionally, the final total hardness is set of 75 to 120 mg/L as CaCO 3,