MICROBIAL GENETICS

BY : MALARVILY VASU, SARRANHYAAH SUBRAMANIAM, EUNICE CHUAH MING HUI, DACHAIINII THEERAN
 Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

The difference between the prokaryotes and

eukaryotes is said to be the most important
disticnction among the groups of organisms. The
main difference is that the eukaryotic cells contain
cellular organelles that are membrane bound, like
the nucleus. The prokaryotic cells do not have
membrane bound cellular organelles. The cellular
structure of the prokaryotes and eukaryotes differ in
the presence of cellular structures like the
mitochondria and chloroplasts, cell wall and the
structure of chromosomal DNA.
 Differences between Prokaryotic cells and Eukaryotic cells
Prokaryotic Cells
They are very minute in size.
Nuclear region (nucleoid) is not
enveloped by a nuclear
membrane.
Single chrmosome present.
Nucleolus is absent.
Membrane bound organelles are
absent.
Multiplication of cell is by fission
or budding.
Cell Walls presnt, which are
chemically complex.
Cell type is usually unicellular.
Cell size is 1-10m
Eukaryotic
Cells
They are comparatively larger in
size.
Nucleus is surrounded by a
double membrane layer.
More than one chromosomeare
present.
Nucleolus ispresent.
Membrane bound organelles are
present.
Cell division by mitosis or meiosis.
Cell walls seen in only plant cells,
which are chemically simpler.
Usually multicellular cells.
Cell size 10 - 100m.
 Four different deoxynucleotides, or nucleotides, the structural units of DNA, are assembled into long polymers of
DNA strands, ornucleic acids. Prior to assembly, they are in the form of nucleotide triphosphates similar to ATP.
DNA Nucleotides

Each nucleotide contains three parts: a phosphate group, the sugar deoxyribose, and one of four nitrogen bases.
The four bases of DNA, their designations and their triphosphate form areadenine(dATP),guanine
(dGTP),thymine(dTTP), andcytosine(dCTP).
In 1950,Chargafdeveloped the principle ofbase-pairing. He determined the relative amounts of A, T, C, and G in a
variety of cells, proving that A = T and C = G and that there is exactly as much purine (adenine and guanine) in the
nucleus as there is pyrimidine (thymine and cytosine).
Through the use ofX-ray crystallography, Wilkins andFranklindetermined that DNA was double stranded and
could form a helix.
GENETIC TRANSFER AND RECOMBINATION
TRANSFORMATION
CONJUGATION
TRANSDUCTION
 Example of plasmid in MRSA (methicillin-resistant
Staphylococcus aureus)
A single MRSA plasmid that conferred
resistance to the penicillin and
streptomycin families of antibiotics, as
well as two other antibiotics and a
disinfectant commonly found in wet
wipes. Since the genes are physically
attached together, selecting for one of
those resistance genes lets the others
hitchhike to high frequency. So exposing
a bacterial population to say,
streptomycin, may also unintentionally
favour the evolution of a strain that
resists the other antibiotics as well.
TRANSPORONS
Transposons are
sequences of DNA that
carry their own
recombination enzymes
that allow for
transposition from one
location to another;
transposons can also
carry antibiotic-
resistance genes.
Griffiths Experiment

Evidence that DNA can transform bacteria

Uses two strain of Streptococcus Pneumoniae, S (smooth) strain and R

(rough) strain

S strain is pathogenic; have outer capsule that protects it from animals

defense system

R strain is nonpathogenic; lacks capsule

 Can be concluded that
the living R bacteria had
been transformed into
pathogenic S bacteria by
unknown, heritable
substance from dead S
cells that allowed the R
cells to make capsules.

Phenomena is known as
transformation
Mutation

is a change in the nucleotide sequence of an organisms DNA or in the DNA

or RNA of a virus

Can be chromosomal alterations or point mutation

Chromosomal Alterations

Caused by errors in meiosis or damaging agents causing breakage of

chromosomes

Four types of changes

Deletion

Duplication

Inversion

Translocation
Reciprocal
Nonreciprocal
Point Mutation

Change in a single nucleotide pair of a gene

Divided into two general categories

Nucleotide pair substitution

Nucleotide pair insertion or deletion

Nucleotide Pair Substitution

Replacement of one nucleotide and its partner with another pair of

nucleotides

Silent Mutation
No observable effect on phenotype

Missense Mutation
Have little effect on protein

Nonsense Mutation
Cause translation to terminate prematurely
Nucleotide Pair Insertion or Deletion

Are additions or losses of nucleotide pairs in a gene

Have a more disastrous effect on resulting protein than substitution

Alter reading frame of genetic message during translation

Frameshift Mutation
Occur when number of nucleotides inserted or deleted is not a multiple of three

Result in extensive missense, ending in nonsense and premature termination

Factors Causing Mutation

Nondisjunction
Error in meiosis or mitosis in which members of a pair of homologous
chromosomes or a pair of sister chromatids fail to separate properly from each
other

DNA replication or recombination error

Spontaneous mutation

Mutagents
Physical and chemical agents

Example, x-ray, ultraviolet light and other high-energy radiation

Human Disorders Due to Chromosomal Alterations

Down Syndrome : Trisomy 21

Extra chromosome 21

Total 47 chromosomes

Aneuploidy of Sex Chromosomes

Extra X chromosome in male (XXY)
Klinefelter syndrome

Extra Y chromosome in male (XYY)

Trisomy X (XXX) in female

Monosomy X (X0)
Turner syndrome
Disorders Caused by Structurally Altered
Chromosomes

Cri du chat
Cry of the cat

Specific deletion in chromosome 5

Chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML)

Chromosomal translocation

Exchange a large portion of chromosome 22 with a small fragment from a tip of

chromosome 9
Produces a much shortened, easily recognized chromosome 22 called
Philadelphia chromosome
 Point Mutation Disorders

Sickle-cell disease
Mutation of a single nucleotide pair in the gene
that encodes the beta-globin polypeptide of
hemoglobin

Familial Cardiomyopathy
Heart condition
 PATHOGENIC
MICROBES
-Factors that make the
character of pathogenic
microbes (fungi and bacteria)
-Use of cell structure
-Enzymes and toxins which aid
microbes.
Bacteria Cell wall structure.
Bacteria mechanism of attack
Enters Releasing
tissue factor
-digest
connective
tissue
barriers White blood cells

Competitio
n

Bacteria multiply
in the white blood
cell then burst-
release endotoxins

Releases
antibodies
Pathogenic bacteria.
citrus canker (Xanthomonus Campestris)

Tuberculosis (Myobacterium Tuberculosis)

Dental caries (Leptotrichs Buccalis)

FUNGI STRUCTURE
Fungal diseases
Plant fungi
-(Ophiostoma Ulmi) Dutch elm disease
Indirect human disease (from consumption of plants)
- ascomycete mold (Aspergillus)
-ergots (Claviceps Purpurcea)... lysergic acid
Animal fungi(mycosis)
Systemic mycosis
-travels through spores
Opportunistic mycosis
-occur only during the change in the microbiology, chemistry or immunology of an organism
THE END