Fatigue Failure Is Characterized by Three Stages

Fatigue Failure
It has been recognized that a metal subjected

to a repetitive or fluctuating stress will fail at a
stress much lower than that required to cause
failure on a single application of load. Failures
occurring under conditions of dynamic loading
are called fatigue failures.
Fatigue failure is characterized by three stages
Crack Initiation
Crack Propagation
Final Fracture
Ken Youssefi MAE dept., SJSU 1

Jack hammer component,
shows no yielding before
fracture.
Crack initiation site
Fracture zone
Propagation zone, striation
VW crank shaft fatigue failure due to cyclic bending and torsional stresses
Propagation
zone, striations
Crack initiation site Fracture area

928 Porsche timing pulley
Ken Youssefi MAE dept., SJSU Crack started at the fillet 4

Fracture surface of a failed bolt. The
fracture surface exhibited beach marks,
which is characteristic of a fatigue failure.
1.0-in. diameter steel pin from

agricultural equipment.
Material; AISI/SAE 4140 low
allow carbon steel

bicycle crank spider arm
This long term fatigue crack in a high quality component took a

considerable time to nucleate from a machining mark between the spider
arms on this highly stressed surface. However once initiated propagation
was rapid and accelerating as shown in the increased spacing of the 'beach
marks' on the surface caused by the advancing fatigue crack.
Crank shaft
Gear tooth failure

Hawaii (1988), Aloha
Flight 243, a Boeing
737, an upper part of
the plane's cabin
area rips off in mid-
flight.
Metal fatigue
compounded by
corrosion

Fracture Surface Characteristics
Mode of fracture Typical surface characteristics

Ductile Cup and Cone
Dimples
Dull Surface
Inclusion at the bottom of the dimple

Brittle Fracture
The cracks usually travel so fast that you can't tell when the material is about to
break. In other words, there is very little plastic deformation before failure occurs.
In most cases, this is the worst type of fracture because you can't repair visible
damage in a part or structure before it breaks.
Cleavage fractures
Grain Boundary cracking

Brittle fracture surfaces
slightly bumpy crack surface
Chevron Fracture Surface

Brittle fracture in a mild steel (shinny surface)

Low temperatures can severely
embrittle steels. The Liberty ships,
produced in great numbers during the
WWII were the first all-welded ships. A
significant number of ships failed by
catastrophic fracture. Fatigue cracks
nucleated at the corners of square
hatches and propagated rapidly by
brittle fracture.

Striations (beach markes
Fatigue Initiation sites
Propagation zone
Final fracture zone

Fatigue Failure Type of Fluctuating Stresses
a = max
max = - min
a = Alternating Stress
m = Mean Stress
Alternating stress
max min
a = 2
min = 0
Mean stress
a = m = max / 2 max min
+
m = 2

Fatigue Failure, S-N Curve
Test specimen geometry for R.R. Moore

rotating beam machine. The surface is
polished in the axial direction. A constant
bending load is applied.
Typical testing apparatus, pure bending
Motor
Load
Rotating beam machine applies fully reverse bending stress

The standard machine operates at an
adjustable speed of 500 RPM to 10,000
RPM. At the nominal rate of 10,000
RPM, the R. R. Moore machine Bending moment capacity
20 in-lb to 200 in-lb
completes 600,000 cycles per hour,
14,400,000 cycles per day.
(Strength vs. # of cycles to failure)
N < 103 N > 103
Finite life
Infinite life
Se
Se = endurance limit of the specimen

Relationship Between Endurance Limit
and Ultimate Strength
Steel
Steel
0.5Sut Sut 200 ksi (1400 MPa)
Se = 100 ksi Sut > 200 ksi
700 MPa Sut > 1400 MPa
Cast iron Cast iron
0.4Sut Sut < 60 ksi (400 MPa)

Se = 24 ksi Sut 60 ksi
160 MPa Sut < 400 MPa
Relationship Between Endurance Limit and
Ultimate Strength
Aluminum
Aluminum alloys
130 MPa Sut 330 MPa
For N = 5x108 cycle
Copper alloys
Copper alloys
100 MPa Sut 280 MPa
For N = 5x108 cycle

Correction Factors for Specimens Endurance Limit
For materials exhibiting a knee in the S-N curve at 106 cycles
S = endurance limit of the specimen (infinite life > 106)
e
Se = endurance limit of the actual component (infinite life > 106)
S Se
103 106 N
For materials that do not exhibit a knee in the S-N curve, the infinite
life taken at 5x108 cycles
Sf = fatigue strength of the specimen (infinite life > 5x108)

Sf = fatigue strength of the actual component (infinite life > 5x108)
S Sf
Ken Youssefi 103 5x108

MAE dept., SJSU
N 21
Material exhibits a knee in S-N curve, infinite life at 106 cycle
Se = Cload Csize Csurf Ctemp Crel (Se)
Material does not exhibit a knee in S-N curve, infinite life at 5x108 cycle
Sf = Cload Csize Csurf Ctemp Crel (Sf)
Load factor, Cload (page 330, Nortons 4th ed. or page 362 in 5th ed.)
Pure bending Cload = 1

Pure axial Cload = 0.7
Pure torsion Cload = 1 if von Mises stress is used, use
0.577 if von Mises stress is NOT used.
Combined loading Cload = 1

Size factor, Csize (p. 331, Nortons 4th ed. or page 363 in 5th ed.)
Larger parts fail at lower stresses than smaller parts. This is

mainly due to the higher probability of flaws being present in
larger components.
For rotating solid round cross section
d 0.3 in. (8 mm) Csize = 1

0.3 in. < d 10 in. Csize = .869(d)-0.097
8 mm < d 250 mm Csize = 1.189(d)-0.097
If the component is larger than 10 in., use Csize = .6

For non rotating components, use the 95% area approach to calculate
the equivalent diameter. Then use this equivalent diameter in the
previous equations to calculate the size factor.
A95 = (/4)[d2 (.95d)2] = .0766 d2

d95 = .95d d A95
dequiv = ( )1/2
0.0766
Solid or hollow round non-rotating parts Rectangular parts
dequiv = .37d dequiv = .808 (bh)1/2

I beams and C channels

surface factor, Csurf (p. 332/3, Nortons 4th ed. or page 363/4 in 5th ed.)
The rotating beam test specimen has a polished surface. Most

components do not have a polished surface. Scratches and
imperfections on the surface act like a stress raisers and reduce
the fatigue life of a part. Use either the graph or the equation with
the table shown below.
Csurf = A (Sut)b

Temperature factor, Ctemp (p.335, Nortons 4th ed. or page 367 in 5th ed.))
High temperatures reduce the fatigue life of a component. For

accurate results, use an environmental chamber and obtain the
endurance limit experimentally at the desired temperature.
For operating temperature below 450 oC (840 oF) the

temperature factor should be taken as one.
for T 840 oF (450 oC) Ctemp = 1
for 840 oF < T 1020 oF Ctemp = 1 0.0032(T 840)

Reliability factor, Crel (p. 335, Nortons 4th ed. or page 367 in 5th ed.)
The reliability correction factor accounts for the scatter and

uncertainty of material properties (endurance limit).

Fatigue Stress Concentration Factor, Kf
Experimental data shows that the actual stress concentration factor is not as
high as indicated by the theoretical value, Kt (depends on the geometry only).
The stress concentration factor seems to be sensitive to the notch radius and
the ultimate strength of the material.
Notch sensitivity factor
Fatigue stress
concentration factor
Kf = 1 + (Kt 1)q
(p. 344, Nortons 4th ed. or p. 376 in 5th ed.)
Steel
Theoretical stress
concentration factor, Kt

Fatigue Stress
Concentration Factor,
q for Aluminum
(p. 345, Nortons 4th ed. or p. 376 in 5th ed.)
Steel
q = .6 for r =.04 and
Sut = 50,000 psi
Aluminum heat treated

q = .52 for r =.04
and Sut = 50,000 psi

Design process Fully Reversed Loading for Infinite Life
Mean stress = 0
Determine the maximum alternating applied stress (a ) in terms of
the size for the selected cross sectional profile
Select material Sy, Sut
Choose a safety factor n
Determine all modifying factors and calculate the endurance

limit of the component Se (infinite life 106) or, Sf (infinite life 5x108)
Determine the fatigue stress concentration factor, Kf , q and Kt
Use the design equation to calculate the size for infinite life
S Sf
Kf a = e or Kf a =
n n
Investigate different cross sections (profiles), optimize for size or weight
You may also assume a profile and size, calculate the alternating stress
and determine the safety factor. Iterate until you obtain the desired
safety factor
(Strength vs. # of cycles to failure)
N < 103 N > 103
Finite life
Infinite life
Se
Se = endurance limit of the specimen

Design for Finite Life
Strength for
finite number
of cycle
Sn = a (N)b equation of the fatigue line
A A
S B S B
Se Sf
103 106 N 103 5x108 N
Sn = .9Sut Sn = .9Sut
Point A Point A
N = 10 3
N = 103
Sn = Se Sn = Sf
Point B Point B
N = 10 6
N = 5x108
Design for Finite Life
Sn = a (N)b log Sn = log a + b log N
Apply boundary conditions for point A and B to

find the two constants a and b
2
(.9Sut)
a=
log .9Sut = log a + b log 103 Se
log Se = log a + b log 106 1 .9Sut
b= log
3 Se
S e
log ( .9S )
N
Sn = Se ( 10 )
ut
6
Calculate Sn and replace Se in the design equation

Sn
K f a = or Kf (na) = Sn Design equation
n
Nortons book (Machine Design) notations

Nortons book (Machine Design) notations
N = N1 = 103 For all materials
N = N2 = 106 For materials

showing the knee
N = N2 For materials that exhibit

no knee. Select N2 and
look up the value for z
from the table
For material exhibiting an endurance-limit knee
Bending and combined load N1 = 103 and N = N2 = 106
2
(.9Sut)
a=
Se
1 .9Sut
b= log
3 Se
For material exhibiting no endurance-limit knee

If infinite life is taken as 5x108 then,
N1 = 103 and N = N2 = 5x108 2

(.9Sut)
a=
Se
1 .9Sut
b= log
5.699 Se

Review of fatigue strength notations
Se = endurance limit of a specimen, material showing a knee

Se = corrected endurance limit, material showing a knee
Sf = endurance limit of a specimen, material showing NO knee

Sf = corrected endurance limit, material showing No knee
Sn = Fatigue strength for finite life

Sm = Fatigue strength at N=1000 cycle

The Effect of Mean Stress on Fatigue Life
Mean stress exist if the

loading is of a repeating or
fluctuating type.
a Mean stress is not zero
Gerber curve
Se
Alternating
stress Goodman line
Sy Sut m
Soderberg line
Mean stress
Modified Goodman Diagram
a
Sy Yield line
Se
Alternating
stress Goodman line
C
Safe zone
Sy Sut m
Mean stress

a
Sy Yield line
Se
Goodman line
C
Safe zone Safe zone
- m - Syc Sy Sut + m

Fatigue, m 0 Fatigue, m > 0

a a m 1
+ = Infinite life
Se Sut nf
Se a m
a = n + = 1 Finite life
f Sn Sut
Yield Se
Syc Yield
a + m = n Sy
y
C
a + m = n
y
Safe zone Safe zone
- m - Syc Sy Sut + m

Applying Stress Concentration factor to Alternating
and Mean Components of Stress
Determine the fatigue stress concentration factor, Kf, apply directly to
the alternating stress Kf a
If Kf max < Sy then there is no yielding at the notch, use Kfm = Kf

and multiply the mean stress by Kfm Kfm m
If Kf max > Sy then there is local yielding at the notch, material at the
notch is strain-hardened. The effect of stress concentration is reduced.
Calculate the stress concentration factor for the mean stress using
the following equation,
Sy Kf a
Kfm =
m
Fatigue design equation
Kf a Kfmm 1
+ = Infinite life
Se Sut nf

Combined Loading
All four components of stress exist,
xa alternating component of normal stress
xm mean component of normal stress
xya alternating component of shear stress
xym mean component of shear stress
Calculate the alternating and mean principal stresses,
1a, 2a = (xa /2) (xa /2)2 + (xya)2
1m, 2m = (xm /2) (xm /2)2 + (xym)2

Combined Loading
Calculate the alternating and mean von Mises stresses,
a = (1a2 + 2a2 - 1a2a)1/2
m = (1m2 + 2m2 - 1m2m)1/2
a m 1
+ = Infinite life
Se Sut nf

Design Example 10,000 lb.
12 6 6
A rotating shaft is carrying 10,000 lb force
as shown. The shaft is made of steel with d D = 1.5d
Sut = 120 ksi and Sy = 90 ksi. The shaft A
is rotating at 1150 rpm and has a R1 R2
machine finish surface. Determine the r (fillet radius) = .1d
diameter, d, for 75 minutes life. Use
safety factor of 1.6 and 50% reliability.
Calculate the support forces, R1 = 2500, R2 = 7500 lb.
The critical location is at the fillet, MA = 2500 x 12 = 30,000 lb-in
Mc 32M 305577
Calculate the alternating stress, a = = = m = 0
I d 3
d 3
Determine the stress concentration factor

r = .1
d
Kt = 1.7
D
= 1.5
d
Design Example
Assume d = 1.0 in
Using r = .1 and Sut = 120 ksi,

q (notch sensitivity) = .85
Kf = 1 + (Kt 1)q = 1 + .85(1.7 1) = 1.6
Calculate the endurance limit
Cload = 1 (pure bending)

Crel = 1 (50% rel.)
Ctemp= 1 (room temp)
-.265
Csurf = A (Sut)b = 2.7(120) = .759
0.3 in. < d 10 in. Csize = .869(d)-0.097 = .869(1)-0.097 = .869

Se = Cload Csize Csurf Ctemp Crel (Se) = (.759)(.869)(.5x120) = 39.57 ksi
Design Example
Design life, N = 1150 x 75 = 86250 cycles
Se 39.57
N
log (
.9Sut
)
86250 log ( .9x120
)
Sn = Se ( 6 )10
Sn = 39.57 ( 6 10
) = 56.5 ksi
305577 Sn 56.5
a = n= = = .116 < 1.6
d3
= 305.577 ksi Kfa 1.6x305.577
So d = 1.0 in. is too small
Assume d = 2.5 in
All factors remain the same except the size factor and notch sensitivity.
Using r = .25 and Sut = 120 ksi,

Kf = 1 + (Kt 1)q = 1 + .9(1.7 1) = 1.63
Csize = .869(d)-0.097 = .869(2.5)-0.097 = .795 Se = 36.2 ksi

Design Example
36.2
log ( .9x120 )
86250
Se = 36.2 ksi Sn = 36.20 ( 10 6
) = 53.35 ksi
305577
a = 3
= 19.55 ksi
(2.5)
Sn 53.35
n= = = 1.67 1.6
Kfa 1.63x19.55
d = 2.5 in.
Check yielding
Sy 90
n= = = 2.8 > 1.6 okay
Kfmax 1.63x19.55

Design Example Observations
Sn 56.5 12 6 6
n= = = .116 < 1.6
Kfa 1.6x305.577 d D = 1.5d
So d = 1.0 in. is too small A

R1 R2 = 7500
r (fillet radius) = .1d
Calculate an approximate diameter
Sn 56.5 So, your next guess

n= = = 1.6 d = 2.4 in.
K f a 1.6x305.577/d 3
should be between
2.25 to 2.5
Check the location of maximum moment for possible failure
Mmax (under the load) = 7500 x 6 = 45,000 lb-in
MA (at the fillet) = 2500 x 12 = 30,000 lb-in
But, applying the fatigue stress conc. Factor of 1.63,

Kf MA = 1.63x30,000 = 48,900 > 45,000
Example
A section of a component is shown.
The material is steel with Sut = 620 MPa
and a fully corrected endurance limit of
Se = 180 MPa. The applied axial load
varies from 2,000 to 10,000 N. Use
modified Goodman diagram and find
the safety factor at the fillet A, groove B
and hole C. Which location is likely to
fail first? Use Kfm = 1
Pa = (Pmax Pmin) / 2 = 4000 N Pm = (Pmax + Pmin) / 2 = 6000 N
Fillet
r 4
= = .16
d 25
Kt = 1.76
D 35
= = 1.4
d 25

Example
Using r = 4 and Sut = 620 MPa,
Kf = 1 + (Kt 1)q = 1 + .85(1.76 1) = 1.65
Calculate the alternating and the

mean stresses,
Pa 4000
a = fK = 1.65 = 52.8 MPa
A 25x5
Pm 6000
m = = = 48 MPa
A 25x5

a m 1 52.8 48 1
+ =
n
Infinite life + =
n
n = 2.7
Se Sut 180 620

Example
Hole
d 5
= = .143 Kt = 2.6
w 35
Using r = 2.5 and Sut = 620 MPa,

Kf = 1 + (Kt 1)q = 1 + .82(2.6 1) = 2.3

mean stresses,
Pa 4000
a = Kf = 2.3 = 61.33 MPa
A (35-5)5
Pm 6000
m = = = 40 MPa
A 30x5
61.33 40 1
+ =
n
n = 2.5
180 620

Example
Groove
r 3
= = .103
d 29
Kt = 2.33
D 35
= = 1.2
d 29
Using r = 3 and Sut = 620 MPa,
Kf = 1 + (Kt 1)q = 1 + .83(2.33 1) = 2.1
mean stresses,
Pa 4000
a = Kf = 2.1 = 58.0 MPa
A (35-6)5
Pm 6000
m = = = 41.4 MPa
A 29x5
58.0 41.4 1
+ =
n
n = 2.57
180 620
The part is likely to fail at the hole, has the lowest safety factor
Example
The figure shows a formed round wire cantilever
spring subjected to a varying force F. The wire is
made of steel with Sut = 150 ksi. The mounting
detail is such that the stress concentration could
be neglected. A visual inspection of the spring
indicates that the surface finish corresponds
closely to a hot-rolled finish. For a reliability of
99%, what number of load applications is likely to
cause failure.
Fa = (Fmax Fmin) / 2 = 7.5 lb. Fm = (Fmax + Fmin) / 2 = 22.5 lb.
Ma = 7.5 x 16 = 120 in - lb Mm = 22.5 x 16 = 360 in - lb
Mc 32Ma 32(120)
a = = = = 23178.6 psi
I d 3 (.375)
3
Mc 32Mm 32(360)
m = = = = 69536 psi
I d 3
(.375)
3

Example
Calculate the endurance limit
-.718
Cload = 1 (pure bending) Csurf = A (Sut)b = 14.4(150) = .394
2
Ctemp= 1 (room temp) A95 = .010462 d (non-rotating round section)
Crel= .814 (99% reliability)

dequiv = A 95 / .0766 = .37d = .37 x.375 = .14
dequiv = .14 < .3 Csize = 1.0
Se = Cload Csize Csurf Ctemp Crel (Se) = (.394)(.814)(.5x150) = 24.077 ksi
a m 1 23178.6 69536 1
+ =
n
+ =
n
n = .7 < 1
Se Sut 24077 150000
Finite life
Find Sn, strength for finite number of cycle
a m 23178.6 69536
+ =1 + =1 Sn = 43207 psi
Sn Sut Sn 150000

Example
Se 24.077
N log ( .9S )
N log ( .9x150 )
Sn = Se ( 10 )
ut
6 43207 = 24077 ( )
106
N = 96,000 cycles

Fatigue Failure Is Characterized by Three Stages

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Fatigue Failure Is Characterized by Three Stages

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Fatigue Failure

It has been recognized that a metal subjected

Ken Youssefi MAE dept., SJSU 1

Crack initiation site

Crack initiation site Fracture area

Ken Youssefi MAE dept., SJSU 3

Ken Youssefi MAE dept., SJSU Crack started at the fillet 4

1.0-in. diameter steel pin from

Ken Youssefi MAE dept., SJSU 5

This long term fatigue crack in a high quality component took a

Gear tooth failure

Ken Youssefi MAE dept., SJSU 7

Ken Youssefi MAE dept., SJSU 8

Mode of fracture Typical surface characteristics

Ken Youssefi MAE dept., SJSU 9

Grain Boundary cracking

Ken Youssefi MAE dept., SJSU 10

slightly bumpy crack surface

Chevron Fracture Surface

Ken Youssefi MAE dept., SJSU 11

Ken Youssefi MAE dept., SJSU 13

Ken Youssefi MAE dept., SJSU 14

Ken Youssefi MAE dept., SJSU 15

Test specimen geometry for R.R. Moore

Typical testing apparatus, pure bending

Rotating beam machine applies fully reverse bending stress

Ken Youssefi MAE dept., SJSU 16

N < 103 N > 103

Se = endurance limit of the specimen

Ken Youssefi MAE dept., SJSU 18

Cast iron Cast iron

0.4Sut Sut < 60 ksi (400 MPa)

For N = 5x108 cycle

Ken Youssefi MAE dept., SJSU 20

Se = endurance limit of the actual component (infinite life > 106)

Sf = fatigue strength of the specimen (infinite life > 5x108)

Ken Youssefi 103 5x108

Pure bending Cload = 1

Ken Youssefi MAE dept., SJSU 22

Larger parts fail at lower stresses than smaller parts. This is

For rotating solid round cross section

d 0.3 in. (8 mm) Csize = 1

If the component is larger than 10 in., use Csize = .6

Ken Youssefi MAE dept., SJSU 23

A95 = (/4)[d2 (.95d)2] = .0766 d2

Solid or hollow round non-rotating parts Rectangular parts

dequiv = .37d dequiv = .808 (bh)1/2

I beams and C channels

Ken Youssefi MAE dept., SJSU 25

The rotating beam test specimen has a polished surface. Most

Ken Youssefi MAE dept., SJSU 26

High temperatures reduce the fatigue life of a component. For

For operating temperature below 450 oC (840 oF) the

for T 840 oF (450 oC) Ctemp = 1

for 840 oF < T 1020 oF Ctemp = 1 0.0032(T 840)

Ken Youssefi MAE dept., SJSU 27

The reliability correction factor accounts for the scatter and

Ken Youssefi MAE dept., SJSU 28

Ken Youssefi MAE dept., SJSU 29

(p. 345, Nortons 4th ed. or p. 376 in 5th ed.)

Aluminum heat treated

Ken Youssefi MAE dept., SJSU 30

Determine all modifying factors and calculate the endurance