UNIT-2

Geometric Modeling

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Introduction
Geometric modeling is the field that
discusses the mathematical methods
behind the modeling of realistic objects
for computer graphics and computer
aided design

Geometric modeling is as important to

CAD as governing equilibrium equations
to classical engineering fields as
mechanics and thermal fluids
The Role of Geometric Modeling in a
CAD System
Classification
General Requirements
Complete part representation including topological
and geometrical data
Geometry: shape and dimensions
Topology: the connectivity and associativity of
the object entities; it determines the relational
information between object entities
Able to transfer data directly from CAD to CAE and
CAM.
Support various engineering applications, such as
mass properties, mechanism analysis, FEA/FEM and
tool path creation for CNC, and so on
 Topology and Geometry
The topology of the object can be stated as
- L1 shares a vertex (point) with L2 & C1
- L2 shares a vertex with L1 & L3
- L3 shares a vertex with L2 & C1
- L1 & L3 donot overlap
- P lies outside the object
The geometry that defines the object is the
- the length of lines L1, L2, L3
- the angle between the lines
- radius R & the centre P of semi-circle
Topology and Geometry
 2-D MODEL
Utility of 2-D model lies in many of
the low end drafting packages
which is required for preparing
manufacturing drawings

Their utility is limited because of

their inherent difficulty in
representing complex objects
3-D MODEL
The 3-D geometric modeling has the
ability to provide all the information
required for CAD-CAM-CAE applications
A 3-D geometric model should be an
unambiguous representation of an
object
A 3-D model should be complete to all
engineering function from
documentation
(drafting & shading) to engineering
analysis to manufacturing
Wireframe Modeling
In this method the complete object is represented
by number of lines, points, arcs & curves and their
connectivity relationships

Advantages
The construction of a wireframe model is simple
It does not require much computer time & memory.
It can be used for simple NC tool path generation
Disadvantages
It can not be used for calculation of mass, inertia
properties
The interpretation of wireframe models having
many edges is very difficult
Examples for Wireframe
modeling

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 Surface Modeling
The surface model is constructed essentially from surfaces
such a s planes, rotated curved surfaces & even very complex
synthetic surfaces.
Surface creation on existing CAD system usually requires
wireframe entities as a start
Surface & wireframe form the core of all existing CAD system
Advantages
Surface model of an object is a relatively more complete & less
ambiguous representation than its wireframe model
This method is very much useful for specific non-analytical surfaces
( free-form surface/sculptured surfaces) such as those used for
modeling automobile & airplane bodies & turbine blades etc.
From an application point of view, surface models can be utilized in
Finite Element Modeling, NC tool path generation, sectioning &
interference detections.
Disadvantages
The calculation of mass & inertia properties would be difficult
Examples for Surface
modeling
Surface models define only the geometry, no
topology.
Shading is possible
Solid Modeling
Solid model of an object is a more complete
representation than surface model, as all
the information required for engineering
analysis & manufacturing can be obtained
with this technique.
Advantages
Solid modeling produces accurate design,
provides complete 3D definition
Improves the quality of design
Improves visualization
Has potential for functional simulation of the
system
Why Solid Modeling ?
Using volume information
weight or volume calculation, centroids,
moments of
inertia calculation,
stress analysis (finite elements analysis), heat
conduction calculations, dynamic analysis,
system dynamics analysis

Using volume and boundary information

generation of CNC codes, and robotic and
assembly
simulation
Wireframe Vs Surface Vs Solid
Model
Wireframe Modeling Entities
 Analytic curve
are defined as those that can be described
by analytic equations such as lines, circle,
conics etc.
provide very compact forms to represent
shapes & simplify the computation of related
properties such as areas & volume.
Analytic curves are usually not sufficient to
meet todays geometric design requirements
of complex mechanical parts like automobile
bodies, aeroplane wings, propeller blades,
bottles etc.
That require synthetic curves & surfaces
(free-form surfaces)
 Synthetic curve
are defined as those that can be
described by a set of data points
(i.e. control points) such as
Splines, Bezier curve etc.
Synthetic curves provide
designers with greater flexibility
& control of a curve shape
by changing the positions of the
one or more data points or control
points.
 Synthetic curve construction
techniques
Interpolation technique ---->Curve
passes through the data points

Approximation technique ---->Curve

do not passes through the data points

Mathematically, synthetic curves represent

a Curve-fitting problem to construct a
smooth curve
 Synthetic curve construction techniques
Interpolation technique ---->Curve resulting
from this technique pass through the given data
points; curve itself is called Interpolant

Approximation technique ---->Produce curves

that do not pass through the given data points.
Instead, these points are used to control the
shape of the resulting curves
 Mathematical representation of
curves
Curve can be described mathematically by
Parametric equation

Explicit form
Non-parametric equation

Implicit form
 Non-Parametric equation
If the co-ordinates y & z of a point on the curve
are expressed as two separate functions of the
third coordinate x <independent variable>. This
curve representation is known as Non-parametric
(Explicit form)
Position vector of a point P on the curve P = [x
y z]T= [x f(x) g(x) ]T
If the co-ordinates x, y & z are related
together by two functions, a non-parametric
implicit form results
f1 (x,y,z) = 0
f2 (x,y,z) = 0
 Parametric equation
In parametric form, each point on a curve is
expressed as a function of a parameter u.
This parameter acts as a local co-ordinate for
points on the curve
Position vector of a point P on the curve = P(u)
= [x(u) y(u) z(u) ]T
The parametric curve is bounded by two
parametric variable values umin and umax.
 Advantages of Parametric curves

In case of commonly used curves (such as circle, conics),

these equations are polynomials rather than equations
involving roots. Hence, the parametric form is not only
more general but it is also well suited to computation in
geometric modeling
Parametric geometry can be easily expressed in terms of
vectors & matrices which enables the use of simple
computation techniques to solve complex analytic
geometry problem
To check whether a given point lies on the curve or not,
reduces to finding the corresponding u values & checking
whether that value lies in the stated u range.
Blending is used to construct composite curve. Blending of
two curves implies the joining of two curves subjected to
the satisfaction of continuity condition.
Various Continuity requirements can be specified at data
points to impose various degrees of smoothness of the
resulting curve.
 Synthetic Curves
Cubic Splines:
Splines are used to interpolate to given data
i.e. based on Interpolation technique.
A spline is a piecewise parametric
representation of the geometry of a curve
with a specified order of continuity.
Cubic splines use a parametric equations of
3rd degree with the first order continuity
maintained at the intersection point of the
curve.
Name from the traditional drafting tool called
Splines or French Curves
 Cubic splines use cubic polynomial
The parametric equation of a cubic spline
segment is given by

Cubic polynomial has four coefficients & thus requires four conditions
to evaluate
 Bezier Curves
Based on approximation techniques.
Developed by P. Bezier, Designer of French car
firm Regie Renault (1962).
Used in his Software system to define the outer
panels of several Renault cars (1899)
Bezier curve uses the vertices of Bezier
Characteristic polygon as control points for
approximating the generated curve. The curve
will pass through the first & last point with all
other points acting as control points. The curve
is also always tangent to the first & last polygon
segment
 The degree of Bezier curve is related to the
number of data points;(n+1) points define an
nth degree Bezier curve.
If no. of data points is 4 [n+1=4], Then n=3 i.e
degree of curve =3 (cubic)
This is widely used for the design of aesthetic
surfaces. The flexibility of the curve becomes
more with more control points
Examples for Bezier curves
Major difference between the Bezier
Curve & Cubic Spline Curve

Bezier Curve Cubic Spline

The degree of Bezier curve is The degree of cubic spline is

variable & is related to the always 3 for a
number of data points
The shape of Bezier curve is First derivatives are not used in the
controlled by its data points curve development
only.
The Bezier curve is smoother It is of lower order derivative
than the cubic spline
 B-Spline Curves
Single piecewise parametric polynomial curve
through any number of control points with the
degree of polynomial selected by Designer
It provides the ability to add control points without
increasing the degree of the curve
B-spline exhibit a local control of the curve shape
i.e. whenever a single vertex is moved, only those
vertices around that will be affected while rest
remains the same
Four control points can always produce a cubic
Bezier curve but four control points can produce
linear, quadratic or cubic B-spline curve
Example for B-Spline curve
 Non-Uniform Rational B- Spline (NURBS)
Are generalization of the curve & surface
theories.
Are almost exclusively used by modern CAD-
CAM-CAE systems to provide a unified approach
to formulate & represent curves & surfaces.
Provide a convenient design tool to create
smooth curves & surfaces interactively
Rational Curve: is defined by algebraic ratio of
two polynomials while a non-rational curve is
defined by one polynomial
 NURBS advantages and Disadvantages
NURBS are considered a unified representation that
can be define both synthetic (like Bezier, B-spline etc.)
& analytic (i.e. circle, conics etc.) curves & surfaces.
Any curve or surface can be formulated using NURBS.
It can represent all curves, surfaces, & solid entities,
allowing unification & conversion from one CAD
system to another via exchange standards Their
related algorithm are stable & accurate.
This unified representation also have the advantage
of reducing the database complexity & the number of
procedures required in CAD system for display &
manipulation of geometric entities
Simple curves (like arcs, circles, conics) require more
data to define as NURBS than traditional way