Chapter 2: Wireless Communication

Principles
Wireless Network Classification
Transmitters/Receivers
Frequency Allocation
Location Management
Antennas and Propagation
Multiplexing, Modulation and Multiple
Access mechanisms

Amjad
Copyright:Umar
A. Umar
 WIRELESS NETWORKS
Different type of wireless networks support mobile computing applications and
platforms
Wireless Personal Area Networks (Bluetooth, Sensors, Zigbees)

Wireless LANs (802.11 family)

Fixed Wireless Local loops

Cellular networks

Satellite systems

A wireless LAN or WLAN is a wireless local area network that uses radio
waves as its carrier.
The backbone network usually uses cables
 Cont
The wireless LAN connects to a wired LAN
There is a need of an access point that bridges wireless LAN traffic into the wired
LAN.
The access point (AP) can also act as a repeater for wireless nodes, effectively
doubling the maximum possible distance between nodes.
 Cont
The physical size of the network is determined by the maximum
reliable propagation range of the radio signals.
Most wireless LAN products operate in unlicensed radio bands

2.4 GHz is most popular

Available in most parts of the world

No need for user licensing

Copyright: A. Umar
 Wireless Networks

Wireless LANs Wireless MANs Wireless WANs

Wireless Cellular Satellite Paging

Personal Business Local Loops Networks Systems Networks
Area LANs (Fixed Wireless)
Networks

Example1: Example1: Example1: Example1: Example1: Example1:

Bluetooth 802.11b LMDS GSM, 9.6 Kbps, Motorola
11 Mbps,
FLEX,
1 Mbps, 37 Mbps, wide coverage Iridium
10 Meters 100 Meters 1.2 Kbps
2-4 Km up to 64 Mbps
Example2: globally
Other examples: Other Example2: 3G, 2 Mbps, Example2:
wireless sensor examples: FSO wide coverage Example 2: ReFLEX,
networks, UWB 802.11g, 1.25 Gbps Deep space 6.4Kbps
HiperLAN2 1-2 KM communication

Copyright: A. Umar
Factors in Designing Wireless Networks

Copyright: A. Umar
 Wireless Frequency Allocation
Radio frequencies range from 9KHz to 400GHZ (ITU)
Microwave frequency range
1 GHz to 40 GHz
Directional beams possible
Suitable for point-to-point transmission
Used for satellite communications
Radio frequency range
30 MHz to 1 GHz
Suitable for omnidirectional applications
Infrared frequency range
Roughly, 3x1011 to 2x1014 Hz
Useful in local point-to-point multipoint applications within
confined areas
Copyright: A. Umar
 Wireless Radio Spectrum: Frequency Allocation
Wavelength Frequency
Gamma-rays

X-rays

0.1 m 3000 GHz Infrared

1 mm THF - terribly high frequency 300 GHz
10 mm EHF - extra high frequency 30GHz
Micro
100 mm SHF - super high frequency 3GHz
Waves
1m UHF - ultra high frequency 300 MHz
10 m VHF - very high frequency 30 MHz
3MHz Radio
100 m HF - high frequency
Waves
1 Km MF - medium frequency 300KHz
10 Km LF - low frequency 30Khz
100 Km VLF - very low frequency 3KHz

Source: Bekkers, R. and Smits, J., Mobile Telecommunications, Artech, 2000.

Copyright: A. Umar
 Cont
Frequency allocation or mobile communication
VHF & UHF ranges for mobile radio
allows for simple, small antennas for cars
deterministic propagation characteristics
less subject to weather conditions > more reliable
connections
SHF and higher for directed radio links, satellite communication
small antennas with directed transmission
large bandwidths available
Wireless LANs use frequencies in UHF to SHF spectrum
some systems planned up to EHF
limitations due to absorption by water and oxygen molecules
weather dependent fading, signal loss caused by heavy
rainfall, etc.

Copyright: A. Umar
 Frequency Regulations
Frequencies from 9KHz to 300 MHZ in high demand
(especially VHF: 30-300MHZ)
Two unlicensed bands in the US (counterparts elsewhere)
Industrial, Science, and Medicine (ISM): 2.4 GHz
Unlicensed National Information Infrastructure (UNII): 5.2 GHz
Regional, national, and international issues
Different agencies license and regulate
www.fcc.gov - US
www.open.gov.uk/radiocom -- for UK
Others (e.g., ETSI (in Europe, five agencies in Japan)
Interferences across national borders handled through
Radio Communications Bureaus

Copyright: A. Umar
 ITU (International Telecom Union)
Headquartered in Geneva (next to UN)
Which is responsible for worldwide coordination of
telecommunication activities( either wired or wireless)
ITU is a sub-organization of the UN
Several sectors:
ITU-R (radiocommunications)- handles standardization in the
wireless sector, it also handles frequency planning.
Holds World Radio Conference(WRC) w/c peredically discuss &
decide frequency allocations
ITU-T (standards) - subsummed formerly CCITT
ITU-D (development) - developing countries

Copyright: A. Umar
 Cont
International Regulatory bodies, such as ITU, harmonize usage
of spectrum through spectrum allocation (dedicating bands to
specific applications: mobile & personal communication,
Radar & military bands, Satellite comm. Band etc)
Regional or national regulatory bodies, such as FCC, assign
the bands to service providers (such as AT&T, Verizon etc)
Each service provider acquires a license for its assigned band

A limited portion of spectrum is unlicensed, such as 2.4 GHz

ISM band over which WiFi operates
12
 Location Based Services (LBSs)
Cell 1

Mobile Public
Switching Switched
Center Telephone
Cell 2 (MSC) Network
(PSTN)

HLR VLR

Mobile User Base Transceiver Station (BTS)

Cordless connection HLR = Home Location Register

Wired connection VLR = Visitor Location Register

Techniques:
Cell-id based
GPS assisted
Angle of arrival
Copyright: A. Umar
 Wireless Transmission

Antenna Antenna
Transmitter Receiver

Wireless Communication systems consist of:

transmitters
Antennas: radiates electromagnetic energy into air
Receivers
In some cases, transmitters and receivers are on same
device, called transceivers (e.g., cellular phones)

Copyright: A. Umar
 Transmitters
Antenna
Amplifier Mixer Filter Amplifier

Oscilator Transmitter

Suppose you want to generate a signal that is sent at 900 MHz and
the original source generates a signal at 300 MHZ.
Amplifier - strengthens the initial signal
Oscilator - creates a carrier wave of 600 MHz
Mixer - combines original signal with oscilator and produces 900
MHz (does modulation, etc)
Filter - selects correct frequency (required by FCC)
Amplifier - Strengthens the signal before sending it
Receivers perform similar operations but in reverse
direction
Copyright: A. Umar
 Location Management
Mobility Management: Enables users to support mobile users,
allowing them to move, while simultaneously offering them
incoming calls, data packets, and other services.
Types of mobility:
1. Terminal mobility: ability of terminal to retain connectivity with the
network so that all on-going communication services remain active
despite terminals migration.

2. Personal mobility: separate user from the terminal

3. Service mobility: provides continuous service to mobile clients

across multiple administrative domains.

Consists of: Location management And Handoff management

 Cont
Two primitive operations:

1. Lookup (search/find/paging/locating) operation: is the

procedure by which the network finds the location of the
mobile.
required when a call (message) to a user is placed (to be delivered)

2. Update (tracking/move/registration) operation: is the

procedure by which the network elements update
information about the location of the mobile.
required when a user changes its location

The information gathered during updating/tracking is used during the

locating operation
 Location and Handoff Management
The current point of attachment or location of a subscriber (mobile
unit) is expressed in terms of the cell or the base station to which it
is presently connected.
The mobile units (called and calling subscribers) can continue to
talk and move around in their respective cells; but as soon as both
or any one of the units moves to a different cell, the location
management procedure is invoked to identify the new location.
The location management performs three fundamental tasks:
(a) location update,
(b) location lookup, and
(c) paging
 Location and Handoff Management
Location update, which is initiated by the mobile unit, the current
location of the unit is recorded in HLR and VLR databases.
Location lookup is basically a database search to obtain the
current location of the mobile unit and through paging the system
informs the caller about the location of the called unit in terms of
its current base station.
These two tasks are initiated by the MSC.
 Handoff Management
Ensuring that a mobile user remains connected while moving
from one location (e.g., cell) to another
Packets or connection are routed to the new location
Decide when to handoff to a new access point (AP)

Select a new AP from among several APs

Acquire resources such as bandwidth channels (GSM), or a new IP address

(Mobile IP)

Inform the old AP to reroute packets and also to transfer state information
to the new AP

Packets are routed to the new AP

 Handoff Management
Decide when to handoff to a new access point (AP)

Select a new AP from among several APs

Acquire resources such as bandwidth channels (GSM), or a new

IP address (Mobile IP)
Inform the old AP to reroute packets and also to transfer state
information to the new AP
Packets are routed to the new AP
 Antennas and Signal Propagation
An antenna is an electrical conductor or system
of conductors
Transmission - radiates electromagnetic energy into
space
Reception - collects electromagnetic energy from
space
In two-way communication, the same antenna
can be used for transmission and reception

Copyright: A. Umar
 Types of Antennas
Isotropic antenna (idealized)
Radiates power equally in all directions
(it is three dimensional)
Dipole antennas
Half-wave dipole antenna (or Hertz
antenna)
Quarter-wave vertical antenna
Parabolic Reflective Antenna
 Other antennas

Helical Antenna

Patch (microstrip) antenna

Multiband antenna: for GSM 900+GSM 1800+GSM

1900+Bluetooth; or GSM and 3G
 Propagation Mechanisms
Radio wave propagation is affected by the following
mechanisms:
Free space propagation

LOS wave travels large distance with obstacle-free

Reflection : Propagation wave impinges(collides) on an object which is large

as compared to wavelength
e.g., the surface of the Earth, buildings, walls, etc.
Diffraction
Radio path between transmitter and receiver obstructed by surface with sharp
irregular edges (diffraction at edges)
Waves bend around the obstacle,
Scattering
Objects smaller than the wavelength of the propagation wave
e.g. street signs, lamp posts

Copyright: A. Umar
 Wireless Propagation Mechanisms
Basic types of propagation mechanisms
Free space propagation
LOS wave travels large

distance with obstacle-free

Reflection reflection

Wave impinges on an object
which is large compared to
Lamp
the wave-length
post

Diffraction diffraction scattering

Occurs when wave hits the sharp edge of the

obstacles and bent around to propagate further

in the shadowed regions.
Scattering
Wave hits the objects smaller than itself. e.g.

street signs and lamp posts.

 Multipath Propagation
Signal can take many different paths between sender and
receiver due to reflection, scattering, diffraction

signal at sender
signal at receiver

Positive effects of multipath:

enables communication even when transmitter and receiver
are not in LOS conditions - allows radio waves effectively
to go through obstacles by getting around them thereby
increasing the radio coverage area
 Propagation Modes
Depending on the frequency, radio waves can also penetrate
objects.
Generally the lower the frequency, the better the penetration.
Long waves can be transmitted through the oceans to a
submarine while high frequencies can be blocked by a tree.
The higher the frequency, the more behavior of the radio
resemble that of light.
The propagation modes behaviors depending on their
frequencies.
Ground Wave (GW) Propagation: < 3MHz
Sky Wave (SW) Propagation: 3MHz to 30MHz
Effective Line-of-Sight (LOS) Propagation: > 30MHz
 Propagation modes
Signal

Transmission Receiving
Antenna Antenna
Earth
a) Ground Wave Propagation
Ionosphere

Signal
b) Sky Wave Propagation
Earth

Signal
c) Line-of-Sight Propagation
Earth
Copyright: A. Umar
 Ground Wave Propagation

Follows contour of the earth.

Can propagate considerable (long) distances.
Frequency bands: ELF, VF, VLF, LF, MF.
Spectrum range: 30Hz ~ 3MHz, e.g. AM radio.
Used for e.g. submarine communication or AM
radio
 Sky Wave Propagation

Signal reflected from ionized layer of upper atmosphere back

down to earth, which can travel a number of hops, back and
forth between ionosphere and earths surface.
HF band with intermediate frequency range: 3MHz ~ 30MHz.
e.g: International broadcast.
 Line-of-Sight Propagation

Tx. and Rx. antennas are in the effective line of sight range.
Includes both LOS and non-LOS (NLOS) case
For satellite communication, signal above 30 MHz not reflected
by ionosphere.
For ground communication, antennas within effective LOS due
to refraction.
Frequency bands: VHF, UHF, SHF, EHF, Infrared, optical light
Spectrum range : 30MHz ~ 900THz.
E.g. mobile phones systems, satellite systesm, cordless telephones ,
etc
 Radio frequency bands
Classification Band Initial Frequency Range Characteristics
s
Extremely low ELF < 300 Hz Ground wave
Infra low ILF 300 Hz - 3 kHz
Very low VLF 3 kHz - 30 kHz
Low LF 30 kHz - 300 kHz
Medium MF 300 kHz - 3 MHz Ground/Sky wave
High HF 3 MHz - 30 MHz Sky wave
Very high VHF 30 MHz - 300 MHz Space wave
Ultra high UHF 300 MHz - 3 GHz
Super high SHF 3 GHz - 30 GHz
Extremely high EHF 30 GHz - 300 GHz
Tremendously high THF 300 GHz - 3000 GHz
Copyright: A. Umar
 Multiplexing , Modulation and Multiple
Access Mechanisms
Multiplexing: is sending multiple signals or streams of
information on a carrier at the same time in the form of a single,
complex signal and then recovering the separate signals at the
receiving end.

Multiplexing techniques are used to allow many users to share a

common transmission resource.

In our case the users are mobile and the transmission resource is
the radio spectrum.
Sharing a common resource requires an access mechanism that
will control the multiplexing mechanism.

Copyright: A. Umar
 Cont
The goal of multiplexing is to share the medium for multiple
use.

Multiplexing is analogy with highway, many users (car drivers)

use the same medium (the highway) with hopefully no
interference (i.e. accidents). This is possible due to the provision
of several lanes (space division multiplexing) separating the
traffic.
In addition, different cars use the same medium (i.e, the same
lane) at different points in time (time division multiplexing).

As in wireline systems, it is desirable to allow the simultaneous

transmission of information between two users engaged in a
connection. This is called duplexing.

Copyright: A. Umar
 Cont
Two types of duplexing exist:
Frequency division duplexing (FDD), whereby two frequency
channels are assigned to a connection, one channel for each
direction of transmission.
Time division duplexing (TDD), whereby two time slots
(closely placed in time for duplex effect) are assigned to a
connection, one slot for each direction of transmission.

Multiplexing in 3 dimensions
time (t) (TDM)
frequency (f) (FDM)
code (c) (CDM)

Copyright: A. Umar
 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
Separation of the whole spectrum divided into non-
overlapping smaller frequency bands
A channel gets a certain band of the spectrum for the
whole time
Can be used for radio station with in the same region,
where each station has its own frequency.
Advantages:
no dynamic coordination necessary, i.e., sync. and framing
works also for analog signals
low bit rates cheaper
No sensitive to propagation delay

Copyright: A. Umar
 FDM
Disadvantages:
waste of bandwidth if the traffic is distributed unevenly
Inflexible and limits number of senders.
guard bands
narrow filters
Not good for mobile communication (it is unlike radio stations
which broadcast 24 hours a day where as mobile
communication typically take place for only a few minutes at
a time)

Copyright: A. Umar
 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
A more flexible multiplexing scheme for typically mobile
communications
A channel gets the whole spectrum for a certain amount of time
(i.e., all senders use the same frequency but at different point of
time)
There is guard space to separate periods when the senders use the
medium. Which is analogy with the highway example, w/c refers
the gap between two cars.
If two transmission overlap in time, this is called co-channel
interference.
To avoid such interference, precise synchronization between
different senders is necessary.

Copyright: A. Umar
 TDM
Advantages:
only one carrier in the medium at any time
throughput high - supports burst signals(like voice or speech )
flexible multiple slots
Most suitable technique for digital transmission
Disadvantages:
Framing and precise synchronization necessary
high bit rates at each Tx/Rx
synchronization is necessary

Copyright: A. Umar
 CDM
First used in military applications due to its inherent security
features.
Each channel has a unique code
All channels use the same spectrum at the same time
Advantages:
bandwidth efficient
no coordination and synchronization necessary
good protection against interference and tapping
Disadvantages:
lower user data rates due to high gains required to reduce interference
more complex signal regeneration

Copyright: A. Umar
 Modulation and demodulation
Modulation has three parameters: amplitude, frequency and phase
Digital modulation is required if digital data has to be transmitted over a medium that only allows for analog transmission

analog
digital baseband
data digital signal analog radio transmitter
101101001 modulation modulation
radio
carrier

analog
baseband digital
analog signal synchronization data
demodulation decision 101101001 radio receiver

radio
carrier

Copyright: A. Umar
 Modulation
Modulation of digital signals known as
Shift Keying 1 0 1
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK):
t
very simple
low bandwidth requirements 1 0 1
very susceptible to interference
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK): t

needs larger bandwidth

1 0 1

Phase Shift Keying (PSK): t

more complex
robust against interference
 The Multiple Access Problem
The base stations need to serve many
mobile terminals at the same time (both
downlink and uplink)
All mobiles in the cell need to transmit to
the base station
So we need multiple access scheme
 Multiple access technique
The idea behind the Resource Management in wireless
communications was how to assign channels or frequencies to
the radio cells in a way that the probability of interference is
sufficiently low.

The utilization of the capacity of a transmission medium can be

improved through different methods that involved transmitting
several connections simultaneously in a multiplex mode
(Multiple Access Techniques).

By using these techniques, the shared resource (spectrum) can be

divided/shared among users, ensuring Quality of Service and the
required amount of interference.
 Multiple access technique

Rarely used at present

Frequency Division Time Division Multiple Code Division Multiple
Multiple Access Access Access
- when the subscriber enters - each subscriber is - each subscriber is
another cell a unique assigned a time slot to assigned a code which is
frequency is assigned to him; send/receive a data burst; is used to multiply the signal
used in analog systems used in digital systems sent or received by the
subscriber
 Frequency Division Multiple Access

frequency

Each mobile (call) is assigned a separate frequency channel for the

entire duration of the call
Sufficient guard band is required to prevent adjacent channel
interference
Usually, mobile terminals will have one downlink frequency band
and one uplink frequency band
Different cellular network protocols use different frequencies
Frequency is a precious and scare resource. We are running out of it
 Frequency Division Multiple Access
FDM divides the transmission frequency range (Bandwidth)
into narrower bands called (sub-channels).

The sub-channels are smaller frequency bands and each band

is capable of carrying a separate voice or data signals!

Guard bands are used to prevent interference on the receiving

end of the signal

Disadvantage (FDMA): Full utilization of the available

frequency band is not possible!!

Advantage: Multiple callers can share the frequency

spectrum.
 FDMA-Applications
FDMA is used in a variety of applications such as:
telephone systems, radio systems, cable TV at homes.

GSM (Global System of Mobile Telecommunication)

uses FDMA in combination with TDMA.

UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunication Systems-

3G) in combination with other multiplexing techniques
 Time Division Multiple Access

Guard time signal transmitted by mobile terminals at different

locations do no arrive at the base station at the same time

Time is divided into slots and only one mobile terminal

transmits during each slot
Like during the lecture, only one can talk, but others may
take the floor in turn
Each user is given a specific slot.
 TDMA
FDM sometime offer less frequency for the communication
channel than the required amount
On the Other hand, in TDM the entire bandwidth of the radio
channel is used but is divided into time slots that are periodically
allocated to each station for the duration of the call
Pros and Cons :
It needs more synchronization between the sender and the receiver
It is more frequency-economic than FDM
This engagement of the transmission medium can cause using asynchronous
time slots instead of the synchronous ones especially when the transmission
pauses occurs
A combination of FDMA/TDMA can be used. For example, in
GSM systems. The traffic is burst onto the channel at a specific
periods.
With this combination, more channels can be used with less
interference.
Copyright: A. Umar
 Code Division Multiple Access
Each phone call is uniquely encoded and transmitted
across the entire spectrum, in a manner known as
spread spectrum transmission
CDMA Code Division Multiple Access
Form of multiplexing
Does not divide up the channel by time or frequency
Encodes data with a special code associated with each channel
In CDMA, the narrowband message signal is
multiplied by a very large bandwidth signal called
spreading signal (code) before modulation and
transmission over the air. This is called spreading.
 CDMA
Like TDMA, in CDMA the analog speech is coded
into digital signals.
Unlike TDMA, in CDMA each conversation is
assigned a unique code (a signature for each
individual transmission).
The codes of different users are assigned to be
different from each other (e.g orthogonal to each
other).
The final signal at the receiver contains only the
relevant conversation. Any other signals are picked
up as a noise.

Copyright: A. Umar
 CDMA
Each symbol of bit is transmitted as a larger number of
bits using the user specific code
Bandwidth occupied by the signal is much larger than the
information transmission rate
But all users use the same frequency band together
 CDMA
CDMA technique is used in UMTS (Universal Mobile
Telecommunication Systems) (Called also W-CDMA)
CDMA provides better signal-to-noise ratio performance than the
conventional TDMA and FDMA. Which means that the required
high capacity can be approved!!
Advantage: It is easy to accommodate variable user capacity as
long as the user does not increase the whole energy of the multi-
user signal.
Disadvantage: The power control issue which limits the max.
number of users in the cell.
There are different alternatives for CDMA in UMTS:
W-CDMA
TD-CDMA
FD-CDMA
Copyright: A. Umar
 Cont
Narrowband vs Wideband
The multiple access schemes can be grouped into
two categories:
Narrowband systems - the total spectrum is divided
into a large number of narrow radio bands that are
shared.
Wideband systems - the total spectrum is used by
each mobile unit for both directions of transmission.
Only applicable for TDM and CDM.

Copyright: A. Umar
 FDMA and TDMA
FDMA:
FM radio divides the spectrum into 30 Khz channels.
FDMA divides 30 Khz channels into 3 (10 KHz each)
Base station cost is high and very limited capacity
TDMA:
available since 1992
each subscriber transmits at different times
6 millisecond frames, each divided into 1 ms time slots
each time slot has a header and data
errors may corrupt headers and cause time slots and in some cases the
whole frame is lost

Copyright: A. Umar
 CDMA
Based on spread spectrum - direct sequencing is more prevalent (TIA IS-95)
Groups of bits from digitized speech are tagged with a unique code that is
associated with a cellular call.
Several cellular calls are combined and transmitted over 1.25MHz and then
reassembled on the receiver side
Receiver detects a signal by tuning to correct phase position between
incoming and locally generated signals from code
Speech coder operates at a variable rate (fully when user is talking)
Adjusts for near-far power adjustments (nearer stations generate less powerful
signals)
When powered on, the mobile system knows the CDMA frequency, so it tunes
to that frequency and searches for a pilot signal (pilot signals represent base
stations)
Mobile station will pick the strongest pilot and register
When moving from cell to cell, new pilot is picked up

Copyright: A. Umar
 TDMA versus CDMA Controversy
TDMA and CDMA are accepted TIA (telecom Industry
Association) standards (IS-54, IS-95)
Many, many variants in industry
Performance reports are conflicting and confusing in terms of:
Call clarity: CDMA appears to be better but questioned
Network capacity: CDMA may be more efficient than TDMA
Privacy: CDMA codes provide more privacy
Economy: TDMA allows same equipment for multiple users
Maturity: TDMA is very mature (in use since 1992)
More features; TDMA offers more but CDMA can do it also

Copyright: A. Umar